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Principles  of  Education. 


BY  / 

MAIXOLM    MACVICAR,    Ph.D.,  LL.D., 

Former  Prituipal  Slate  Normal  aitd  Trainiuf^  School, 
J'olsdam,  N.  J-'. 

First  Cluincellor  oj  McMaster  University, 
Toronto,  Oni. 

CTATENORJMAL  SCHOOL 


liOSTON,  U.S.A.,  AND  LONDON: 
PUBLISHED   BY  C.INX   &  COMIMNV 


ENTEKED   AT  STATIONERS     HALL. 

Copyright,  1892, 

by 

M.  MacVicar,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 


/A  "^5- 
INTRODUCTORY    NOTE. 


In    preparing   every    part    of  the  outline  contained 
in    this   small  volume    the  aim  has  been,  not  to  give 
an  exhaustive  analysis  or  discussion    of   the    subjects 
presented,  but    to    furnish   material  that  will  provoke 
investigation  and  thought  and  that  will  render,  at  the 
same  time,  practical  help  to  teachers    and    others  in- 
terested in  the  education  of  the  young.     The  outline 
is  given  in  the  form  of  propositions,  followed  by  brief 
notes,  which  serve  to  explain  or  call  attention  to  the 
truths  which    the  propositions  explicitly  state  or  im- 
v4  ply.      These    notes,    being    necessarily    brief,    present 
'^   only  in  a  partial  way  the  views  of  their  author.     No 
i*>  attempt    is    made    to    discuss   fundamental    truths    re- 
'   garding  matter    and    mind,  life  and    development,  on 
which    both    the    propositions    and    notes   are  based. 
It  is  hoped,   however,  that  the  propositions  and  notes 
are  sufficiently  full    and  explicit  to  be  clearly  under- 
stood and  to  serve    the    practical  purposes  for  which 
they    are    intended.      With    this    hope    they  are  sub- 
mitted   for    the    consideration    and    assistance  of    co- 
workers in  educational  effort. 


CONTENTS. 


PACKS 

General  Principles, i-8 

Educational  Products, 9 

Physical  and  Mental  Power,       ....  10-20 

Right  Habits, 21-30 

General  Physical  Habus, 31-33 

General  Intellectual  Habits,         .        .        .  34-40 

General  Moral  Habits, 41-48 

Formation  of  Habits, 49-53 

Pure  and  Elevated  Tastes,          ....  54-65 

Acquisition  of  Knowledge,       ....  66-72 

Periods  of  Development, 73 

Period  of  Infancy, 74-79 

Period  of  Childhood, 80-88 

Period  of  Youth, 89-97 

Principles  of  Pupils'  Work,         ....  98-16 

I'RiNciPLES  of  Teachers'  Work,        ...  117 

General  Principles, 118-123 

Special  Principles  of  Teaching,      .        .        .  124-134 

Means  to  be  used  in  Teaching,   ....  135-142 

The  Management  of  Schools,  ....  143-149 

The   Training  of  T^:achers,          ....  150 

Nature  of  Training  Work,       ....  150-155 

Teachers'  Training  Course,         ....  156-158 

Physical  Training, 158-161 

Academic  or  Intellectual   Training,                 .  162-164 

Moral  and  Spiritual  Training,        .        .        .  164-170 

Professional  Training, 170-178 


PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES. 

Under  this  head  ^vill  be  noted  those  principles 
of  education  which  underHe  every  well  directed  ef- 
fort for  the  symmetrical  development  of  a  human 
being,  and  also  the  classification  and  nature  of  true 
educational   products. 

I.  All  impartial  and  careful  examination  of  the 
wJiole  phenomena  of  life  reveals  clearly  three  great 
classes,  viz.  :  Vegetal  Life,  Animal  Life,  and  Mind 
Life. 

{a).  The  exact  line  which  separates  these  three 
classes  of  life  may  be  difficult  to  determine  ;  yet,  not- 
withstanding this,  the  fact  of  the  existence  of  the  three 
classes  cannot,  upon  any  sound  principles  of  classifica- 
tion, be  rejected.  It  is,  perhaps,  well  to  note  here  that 
there  exists  no  more  difficulty  in  determining  the  line 
of  separation  between  Mind  Life  and  Animal  Life, 
than  between  Animal  Life  and  Vegetal  Life. 

(//).  Each  one  of  these  three  classes  of  life  has  its 
own  peculiar  laws  of  growth  or  development,  and 
hence  each  class  is,  in  a  certain  sense,  alike  susceptible 


PRINCIPLES   OF  EDUCATION. 


of  education.  The  fundamental  problem,  therefore,  of 
education  is  the  discovery  and  application  of  these 
laws;  hence  the  careful  study  of  biology  and  psychol- 
ogy is  of  first  importance  to  the  true  educator. 

2.  Each  individual  life  originates  in  a  parent 
life,  and  derives  from  that  pai'ent  life  its  inherent 
constitution. 

{a).  This  proposition  is  now  generally  conceded  by 
scientific  authorities.  Belief  in  spontaneous  generation 
is  a  thing  of  the  past 

(/').  What  life  is  in  itself  is  still  a  disputed  question. 
Two  views  commonly  prevail  upon  the  subject.  It  is 
maintained  on  the  one  hand  that  life  m  the  product  of 
physical  forces,  and  on  the  other  that  it  is  an  independ- 
ent and  distinct  entity  or  endowment.  The  latter  is 
the  view  adopted  in  these  notes. 

{c).  Adopting  the  latter  view,  it  is  maintained  that 
the  life  is  the  organizing  power  which  selects  and  dis- 
poses of  the  material,  physical  and  otherwise,  which 
compose  and  perpetuate  each  organ  of  the  body  and 
faculty  of  the  mind.  It  is  maintained,  also,  that  the  life 
alone  determines  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  pos- 
sibilities inherent  in  both  body  and  mind. 

(</).  The  parent  life  bestows  upon  its  offspring  its 
own  type  of  life  and  organism.  This  includes  what 
may  be  called  the  natural  or  original  type,  and  also 
such  changes  in  life  and  organism  as  may  have  been 
acquired  by  the  parent  life.  The  acquired  power  or 
dexterity,  for  example,  of  some  organ  or  faculty  as  well 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES. 


as  the  original  type,  may  be  transmitted  from  parent  to 
offspring. 

3.  The  process  of  education,  in  a  broad  sense,  may 
be  defined  as  that  by  which  external  eonditicns  or  ap- 
pliances are  made,  by  the  action  of  an  agent,  the  means 
of  unfolding  or  developing  symmetrically  all  the  legiti- 
mate possibilities  of  a  single  life, 

(^).  The  word  education  is  commonly  used  in  two 
senses.  It  is  used,  as  in  this  definition,  to  denote  a  pro- 
cess, but  it  is  also  used  to  denote  the  result  or  product 
of  the  process.  As  a  process,  a  true  and  complete 
education  means  the  course  of  training,  instruction  and 
discipline  through  which  a  human  being  must  pass  to 
acquire  the  full  and  legitimate  exercise  of  all  the  organs 
of  the  body,  the  full  and  legitimate  exercise  of  all  the 
powers  of  the  mind,  and  so  much  systematized  knowl- 
edge as  will  fit  him  to  use,  in  an  intelligent  and  effi- 
cient manner,  the  organs  of  his  body  and  powers  of 
his  mind,  in  performing  physical,  intellectual,  moral 
and  spiritual  work.  As  a  result  or  product,  a  true 
education  means  a  symmetrically  developed  body  and 
mind,  possessed  of  power,  right  habits,  pure  and 
elevated  tastes,  and  systematized  knowledge. 

{b).  A  true  and  complete  education,  in  accordance 
with  this  definition,  is  a  growth,  a  development,  an 
evolution  (using  the  term  evolution  in  a  restricted 
sense),  of  all  the  possibilities  which  God  has  implanted 
in  our  nature  ;  it  is  the  unifying  of  these  possibilities 
subordinating  them  all  to  thr  control  of  the  will;   it  is, 


PRINCII'LES  OF  education: 


in  short,  the  crystalHzation  of  all  these  possibilities 
into  a  pure  and  noble  character.  This  result  is  the 
product  of  the  joint  action  of  inherent  natural  powers, 
and  environments  supplied  by  parents,  teachers  and 
other  agencies. 

(f).  The  process  of  education,  in  whatever  way  it 
may  be  carried  on,  involves  three  factors  :  namely,  the 
teacher,  the  pupil,  and  the  instrumentalities  by  which 
the  teacher  affects  the  pupil,  or  by  which  a  vitalizing 
union  is  constituted  between  the  pupil  and  what  is  ex- 
ternal to  him.  The  word  teacher,  in  this  connection,  is 
used  to  include  any  agent  who  directs  and  controls  the 
instrumentalities  by  which  the  pupil  is  affected,  hence 
the  parents  and  the  pupils  themselves  are  included. 
When  the  pupils  become  their  own  agents  in  carrying 
on  the  work,  the  process  is  called  self-education. 

4.  Man,  in  all  educational  processes,  must  be  re- 
gardid  as  an  organized  unit,  composed  of  body  and  mind, 
united  in  such  a  manner  that  no  one  element  of  this 
complex  li'liolc  can  be  developed,  or  in  any  way  af- 
fected, li'ithout  in  some  degree  affecting  the  entire  being. 

{a).  The  popular  classification  of  education  into 
physical,  intellectual,  moral  and  spiritual,  is  very  mis- 
leading. It  attracts  attention  from  the  absolute  unity 
of  our  being.  It  causes  many  to  suppose  that  the 
process  of  education  is  actually  separable  into  four 
departments,  each  of  which  can  be  carried  on  abso- 
lutely independent  of  all  the  others.  Those  falling 
into  this  error  find  it  difficult  to  understand  whv  the 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES. 


Bible,  which  is  the  peculiar  basis  of  spiritu<il  educa- 
tion, should  be  a  necessary  element  of  physical  and 
intellectual  education. 

{b).  Conflicting  philosophical  views  prevail  as  to 
the  real  existence  of  the  two  substances — matter  and 
mind.  The  materialist,  on  the  one  hand,  maintains 
that  matter  is  the  only  existing  substance,  and  that 
the  phenomena  of  thought,  feeling  and  will  are 
evolved  from  this  substance.  The  idealist,  on  the 
other  hand,  maintains  that  mind  is  the  only  substance 
that  has  any  real  existence,  and  that  all  phenomena 
attributed  to  matter  are  necessarily  phenomena 
evolved  from  mind.  These  are  the  two  extreme 
views.  A  third  view  maintains  the  existence  of  the 
two  substances,  matter  and  mind,  each  being  the 
source  or  origin  of  phenomena,  which  cannot  upon 
any  principles  of  sound  reasoning,  be  derived  from 
the  other.  This  view  holds  that  existing  phenomena 
can  be  accounted  for  only  by  accepting  the  real  and 
equally  original  and  independent  existence  of  matter 
and  mind,  both  substances  being  mysteriously  united 
in  the  constitution,  and  hence  in  the  production  of 
the  phenomena  of  the  complex  unit  called  man.  This 
is  not  the  place  to  discuss  or  defend  the  merits  of 
any  one  of  these  views.  It  is  perhaps  sufficient  to 
say  that  the  last-stated  is  the  view  adopted  in  these 
notes. 

{c).  The  unity  of  the  body  and  mind,  and  the 
power  of  what  may  be  called  the  law  of  reflex  action 
in  the  development  of   both,    is    established     beyond 


PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 


doubt  by  the  most  careful  scientific  observation  and 
experiment.  It  is  an  obvious  fact,  even  to  common 
observers,  that  in  the  most  minute  details  the  body 
affects  the  mind,  and  the  mind  the  body.  Diseases 
of  the  body,  for  example,  are  not  unfrequently  the 
direct  products  of  the  reflex  action  of  the  mind. 

{d').  The  law  of  reflex  action  extends  much  further 
than  is  usually  supposed.  It  takes  in  the  entire  man. 
Not  only  does  the  body  aflect  the  mind,  and  the 
mind  the  body,  in  a  general  sense,  but  each  organ 
of  the  body  has  a  reflex  influence  over  every  other 
organ,  and  eacli  faculty  of  the  mind  over  every  other 
faculty.  There  is  a  perfect  interdependence  running 
through  the  entire  being.  It  is  literally  true,  whether 
we  refer  to  body  or  mind  or  to  the  union  of  both, 
that  "  if  one  member  suffers  all  the  members  suffer 
with  it,  or  if  one  member  be  honored  all  the  mem- 
bers rejoice  with  it."  In  view,  then,  of  the  power 
and  ever-operative  nature  of  the  law  of  reflex  action, 
it  is  evident  that  the  physical  and  intellectual  natures 
cannot  be  symmetrically  developed  independent  of  a 
corresponding  and  parallel  development  of  the  moral 
and  spiritual  natures. 

(<■).  It  may  be  here  observed,  that  this  proposition 
deserves  from  every  teacher  careful  consideration,  as 
it  states  one  of  the  most  fundamental  conditions  upon 
which  a  true  philosophy  of  education  must  rest. 
Unless  the  real  unity  of  man's  being  and  the  real 
reciprocal  dependence  of  all  the  elements  composing 
that    unity  are    fully  recognized,  all  educational  pro- 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES. 


cesses  and  efiforts,  however  well  devised  and  well  di- 
rected, must  ever  fail  of  the  best  results,  must  ever 
fail  of  producing  a  symmetrical  manhood. 

5.  Man  as  an  organized  unit  is  possessed  of  two 
distinct,  and  yet  related  and  vmtnally  depende^tt,  classes 
of  possibilities  :  namely,  physical  possibilities  and  men- 
tal possibilities. 

{ti).  The  word  possibilities  is  used  in  these  notes 
to  mean  the  qualities,  properties,  powers,  or  faculties 
inherent  in  an  individual  life  and  its  organism, 
through  which  such  life  and  organism  are  capable  of 
growth  or  development,  and  of  sustaining  definite  and 
operative  relations  to  the  world  of  mind  and  matter. 
The  word  organism  is  also  used  to  refer  to  the  mind 
as  well  as  to  the  body.  Each  is  equally  organized. 
They  differ  not  in  the  fact  that  the  body  is  organized 
and  the  mind  not,  but  in  the  nature  of  the  substance 
of  which  each  is  composed, 

{b).  The  physical  and  mental  organisms  together  con^ 
stitute  the  unit  man.  Each  organism,  however,  has 
possibilities  which  arc  exercised  independent  the  one  of 
the  other.  For  example,  there  are  various  processes  go- 
ing on  constantly  in  the  body,  such  as  the  action  of  the 
heart,  which  are,  in  a  certain  sense,  entirely  independ- 
ent of  any  action  of  the  mind.  There  are,  in  like  man- 
ner, in  the  higher  regions  of  mental  activity  processes 
carried  on  which  are  equally  independent  of  the  body. 

{c).  While  it  is  true  that  the  physical  and  mental 
organisms  each  possess  independent  possibilities,  it  is 


8  PKINCIPLF.S  OF  EDUCATION. 


also  equally  true  that  these  possibilities  cannot  always  be 
exercised  independently.  For  example,  the  mind  can 
have  no  consciousness  of  an  external  world,  except 
through  the  activity  of  the  organs  of  sense.  But, 
still  more,  this  dependence  is  of  such  a  nature  that 
there  can  be  no  healthy  exercise  even  of  the  possibili- 
ties of  the  body  or  of  the  mind  that  are  independent 
of  each  other,  except  as  the  possibilities  whose  exer- 
cise depends  one  on  the  other,  and  which  bind  the  two 
organisms  together  as  parts  of  one  whole,  are  in  full 
and  healthy  exercise. 

6.  A  true  system  of  educatioji  must  provide,  at  one 
aud  the  same  time,  the  conditions  and  appliances  neces- 
sary for  the  separate  and  mutual  development  of  the 
organs  of  the  body,  and  of  all  the  faculties  of  the  mind. 

{a).  The  truth  of  this  proposition  follows  necessarily 
from  the  two  preceding  propositions. 

{U).  Not  only  does  the  growth  or  development  of 
the  body  and  of  the  mind  run  parallel  with  each 
other  in  point  of  time,  but  the  healthy  development  of 
the  one  is  dependent  upon  the  healthy  development  of 
the  other.  Neither  can  be  neglected  for  a  single  day 
without  doing  injury  to  the  other.  Healthy  physical 
growth,  for  example,  is  impossible  where  a  certain 
minimum  of  mental  activity  is  not  maintained.  The 
converse  of  this  is  equally  true ;  hence  the  truth  of  the 
proposition. 

(r).  The  principle  stated  in  this  proposition  refers  not 
only  to  the  general   relations  of  body   and  mind,  but 


EDUCATIONAL   PRODUCTS. 


also  to  the  special  relations  of  the  organs  of  the  one 
and  the  faculties  of  the  other.  The  principle  assumes, 
for  example,  that  the  healthy  development  of  the  in- 
tellectual elements  of  a  man's  nature  is  inseparably 
connected  with  and  dependent  upon  the  healthy  de- 
velopment of  both  the  moral  and  spiritual  elements. 
In  this,  the  principle  correctly  assumes  that  these  three, 
apparently  distinct  elements  of  man's  nature  are 
necessarily  only  three  phases  of  the  one  indivisible  unit 
called  mind,  and,  hence,  that  the  conditions  and  ap- 
pliances used  in  conducting  the  educational  process 
should,  in  their  very  nature,  be  such  as  will  at  the 
same  time  minister  to  the  healthy  development  of  each 
of  these  three  elements. 


EDUCATIONAL   PRODUCTS. 

7.  A  careful  cxaviiJiatwii  and  analysis  of  true  C(hi- 
cational  products  t^'ill,  it  is  believed,  justify  classifying 
them  tinder  the  follozving  general  heads  : 

{a).   Physical  and  mental  power. 

{b).  Right  habits. 

{c).  Pure  and  elevated  tastes. 

{d).  Systematized  knowledge. 

(r).  A  reliable  and  symmetrical  character. 

In  reference  to  each  of  these  classes  of  educational 
products,  the  following  propositions  should  be  carefully 
noticed  : 


lO  PRmCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 


PHYSICAL   AND   MENTAL  POWER, 

8.  Power  as  an  educational  product  is  of  two  kinds  : 
namely.  Receptivity  and  Energy. 

{a).  Receptivity  is  that  form  of  power  which  enables 
man  to  receive  impressions  of  all  sorts,  to  endure,  to 
bear,  to  suffer,  to  be  influenced,  to  be  trained  to  cer- 
tain courses  of  feeling,  thought  and  action. 

{p).  Energy,  on  the  other  hand,  is  that  form  of 
power  which  makes  man  a  cause,  which  enables  him 
to  produce  effects,  to  bring  things  to  pass,  to  think, 
to  act,  to  perform  physical  and  mental  work. 

(r).  Power  as  a  receptivity,  and  also  as  an  energy,  is 
coextensive  with  man's  entire  being.  Each  organ  of 
the  body  and  faculty  of  the  mind  is  endowed  with 
power  in  each  of  these  respects.  This  power  is  trans- 
mitted in  its  germinal  form  from  parent  to  offspring, 
and  is  susceptible  either  of  improvement  or  degeneracy^ 
under  conditions  that  will  hereafter  be  noted. 

(</).  Power  as  a  receptivity  is  the  only  channel 
through  which  education  in  any  of  its  phases  is  made 
possible.  Indeed,  the  degree  of  receptivity,  in  each 
case,  determines  the  degree  or  extent  to  which  the 
education  of  the  individual  can  be  carried.  For 
example,  it  is  impossible  to  educate  a  person  possessed 
of  low  receptive  power  for  slight  variations  of  sound, 
so  as  to  become  a  critical  judge  of  artistic  music. 

(<•).  The  degree  to  which  power  as  an  energy  is  pos- 
sessed determines  the  effectiveness  of  each  man  in  the 
conduct  of  whatever  may  be    his  life   work.     This   is 


PHYSICAL  AND  MENTAL  POWER.  II 

true,  whether  the  man  be  viewed  from  the  standpoint 
of  physical  or  mental  effort. 

9.  Physical  power  ismanifcsted  through  the  two  classes 
of  organs  of  which  the  body  is  essentially  composed: 
namely,  the  apparatus  of  organic  life  and  the  appa- 
ratus of  animal  life. 

{a).  The  function  of  the  apparatus  of  organic  life  is 
to  construct  and  to  keep  in  working  order  every  organ 
of  the  body ;  that  of  the  apparatus  of  animal  life  is  to 
place  the  mind  in  conscious  and  mechanical  relations  to 
the  body  itself  and  to  the  external  world.  The  appa- 
ratus of  animal  life  is  composed — ist,  of  the  cerebro- 
spinal nervous  system,  which  includes  the  brain,  spinal 
cord,  and  the  nerves  connected  directly  with  these 
centres  known  as  the  sensory  and  motor  nerves  ;  2d, 
the  skeleton,  which  includes  the  bones,  cartilages,  and 
ligaments ;  and  3d,  the  muscles.  These  parts  are 
united  together  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  two  classes 
of  devices,  known  as  the  sensory  organs  and  the  motor 
or  mechanical  organs. 

{b).  The  body  as  a  whole  maybe  regarded  as  a  com- 
plex machine,  in  which  are  located,  at  certain  points, 
special  devices  or  machines,  composed  of  a  combination 
of  sensory  nerves,  motor  nerves,  bones  and  muscles, 
joined  together  and  fitted  to  perform  a  special  work. 
The  feet,  the  hands,  and  the  neck  are  illustrations  of 
these  devices.  The  hand,  for  example,  is  so  constructed 
that  it  is  capable  of  forming  an  almost  endless  variety 
of  mechanical  connections   with  external  objects,    and 


12  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 


hence  capable  of  performing  a  great  variety  of 
work. 

(r).  The  structure  of  the  sensory  organs  should  be 
carefully  noted.  Each  is  not  a  simple  device  composed 
exclusively  of  a  group  of  special  sensory  nerves.  For 
example,  the  eyeball  and  the  motor  nerves  and  muscles 
by  which  it  is  moved  form  each  a  part  of  the  organ  of 
sight.  The  position  in  the  body,  and  the  reason  why 
each  organ  is  so  placed,  should  also  be  noted.  The 
fact  that  the  eye,  the  ear,  the  nose,  and  the  tongue  are 
located  in  the  head,  and  the  touch  spread  over  the 
entire  body,  is  not  a  matter  of  chance. 

{li).  Each  of  the  sensory  organs,  from  its  peculiar 
structure  and  position,  is  fitted  to  place  the  mind  in 
conscious  relation  to  only  one  class  of  phenomena  in 
the  external  world.  The  eye  connects  the  mind  con- 
sciously with  the  phenomena  of  color,  the  touch  with 
the  phenomena  of  resistance,  the  ear  with  the  phe- 
nomena of  sound,  the  nose  with  the  phenomena  of  smell, 
and  the  tongue  with  the  phenomena  of  taste.  These 
simple  classes  of  phenomena,  and  their  necessary  con- 
sequences and  combinations,  constitute  all  that  can  be 
known  through  the  senses  of  the  objective  or  material 
world. 

(«•).  No  one  of  the  five  senses  can  place  the  mind 
in  conscious  relation  to  the  phenomena  which  belong 
to  another  sense.  The  cases  commonly  known  as  a 
substitution  of  one  sense  for  another  are  only  apparent, 
not  real.  For  example,  it  is  supposed  that  a  blind 
person  can  determine  color  by  touch.      In    this  case, 


PHYSICAL  AND  MENTAL  POWER.  13 

where  the  person  has  been  born  blind,  there  never  can 
be  any  consciousness  of  color.  His  apparent  dis- 
crimination of  colored  objects  is  simply  the  result  of 
his  knowledge  of  the  degree  and  nature  of  resistance 
substances  give  to  the  touch  which  are  called  blue, 
red,  and  so  on.  Hence  he  can  pick  out  the  objects 
that  are  blue  or  red,  and  speak  of  them  as  such  as 
freely  as  a  person  who  is  actually  conscious  of  the 
color.  Another  case,  perhaps  more  to  the  point,  is 
commonly  cited,  namel)^  determining  extension  by 
sight  and  touch.  Here  it  is  true  that  extension  in  a 
certain  sense  is  given  through  each  sense,  but  it  must 
be  noticed  that  the  consciousness  of  extension  given 
by  the  factor  color  through  the  sight  is  always  sharply 
distinguished  from  the  consciousness  of  the  same  ex- 
tension given  through  the  sense  of  touch. 

(_/").  Our  consciousness  of  objects  in  the  external 
world  is  produced  by  the  actual  contact  of  these  ob- 
jects with  the  sensory  nerves ;  hence  all  of  the  senses 
operate  precisely  in  the  same  manner  as  touch.  That 
which  produces  consciousness  through  the  eye,  the 
nose  and  the  tongue,  is  as  really  in  actual  contact 
with  the  nerve  in  each  case  as  that  which  produces 
it  through  the  touch.  For  example,  the  conscious- 
ness of  color  and  of  extension,  at  least  in  two  di- 
mensions, is  caused  by  the  actual  contact  of  light 
with  the  optic  nerve. 

(^).  The  motor  organs  are  all  subject  to  the  di- 
rection and  control  of  the  mind,  and  have  the  power 
of  forming    habits.     Hence  they  can  be  educated  or 


14  pR/NC/rrjis  of  education. 

trained  so  as  to  perform  the  work  for  which  they  are 
intended  in  an  easy  and  efficient  manner.  This  train- 
ing should  commence  with  the  infant  and  continue 
through  childhood  and  youth.  It  should  receive  the 
constant  attention  of  both  parents  and  teachers,  as 
the  strength  and  efficiency  of  the  future  man  largely 
depend  upon  his  ability  to  use  effectively  the  me- 
chanical organs. 

(//).  The  power  and  efficiency  of  the  sensory  and 
mechanical  organs  depend  upon  the  formation  of 
right  habits  of  wofk,  and  these  habits  can  be  formed 
only  by  persistently  training  each  organ  in  doing  its 
own  special  work.  Right  habits  of  work  are  the 
products  of  time  and  persistent  practice.  Yet  much 
can  be  done  to  help  the  child  in  forming  habits  by 
a  proper  regard  to  the  simple  demands  of  his  nature. 
Those  demands  suggest  that,  in  order  to  form  good  hab- 
its of  work,  his  course  of  training  should  be  arranged 
so  that  none  of  the  following  conditions  are  violated: 

(i).  The  special  exercises  for  each  organ  should 
comprehend  the  entire  range  of  work  for  which  the 
organ  is  intended. 

(2).  The  organs  should  be  exercised  in  such  com- 
binations with  each  other  as  will  occur  :n  using  them 
in  actual  life. 

(3).  The  activity  of  the  organs  called  into  exercise 
should  not  produce  present  or  future  pain  or  suffering. 

(4).  The  activity  of  the  organs  at  every  stage  of 
the  work  should  be  sustained  by  a  present  and  pro- 
spective purpose. 


PITYSTCAL  AND  MENTAL  POWER.  15 

(5).  Present  results  should  always  be  arranged  so 
that  they  require  continued  attention  and  repetition, 
in  order  that  their  full  value  may  be  realized. 

10.  Mi)id  as  the  source  of  poivcr  is  constituted  so  as 
to  sustain  conscious  and  unconscious  relations  to  entities 
and  phenomena  pertaining  to  space  and  its  contents,  to 
time  and  its  contents,  and  to  mind  or  spirit  and  its 
contents. 

{a).  The  mind  is  in  no  sense  composed  of  parts 
which  perform  separate  and  distinct  offices.  It  acts 
as  an  indivisible  7init  when  it  perceives,  recalls  what 
is  past,  wills,  etc.  While  this  is  true,  it  is  equally 
true  that  the  mental  energy  exercised  in  perceiving 
and  in  willing,  for  example,  can  be  clearly  distinguished 
from  each  other,  hence  the  various  conscious  mani- 
festations of  mental  energy  can  be  classified.  This 
gives  rise  to  the  distinctions  cdWad  faculties.  A  faculty, 
therefore,  means  the  mind  putting  forth,  as  a  unit,  an 
energy  which  can  be  clearly  distinguished  from  other 
manifestations  of  mental  energy. 

(/;).  The  exercise  of  mental  energy  may  be  classified 
under  eight  heads,  as  follows  :  The  energy  exercised, 

(i).  In  the  act  of  perceiving  or  being  conscious  of 
what  is  now  and  here  present  to  the  mind  ; 

(2).  In  the  act  of  conserving  or  retaining  out  of  con- 
sciousness knowledge  or  past  experiences. 

(3)  In  the  act  of  reproducing  or  bringing  back 
into  consciousness  past  experiences. 

(4).    In     the    act     of    representing    or    holding     up 


1 6  PRINCTPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

before  tlie  mind  all  of  which  it  has  been  or  is  con- 
scious ; 

(5).  In  the  act  of  comparing  or  recognizing  the 
differences  and  agreements  between  two  or  more 
objects  of  consciousness. 

(6).  In  the  act  of  desiring  or  choosing  or  prefer- 
ring the  presence  of  one  kind  of  mental  activity  or 
passivity  to  another  ; 

(7).  In  the  act  of  willing  or  originating,  continu- 
ing or  changing  any  one  or  more  of  the  activities  of 
the  mind  ; 

(8).  In  the  act  of  deciding  ivhcn,  ivJicrc,  hozo  and 
for  what  pui-posc  the  active  or  receptive  power  of  the 
mind  ought  to  be  exercised. 

{c).  Mental  power  as  a  receptivity  is  not,  as  in  the 
case  of  energy,  susceptible  of  definite  classification. 
Its  exercise  is  especially  manifest  in  the  phenomena 
of  pleasure  and  pain,  habits,   etc. 

II.  Acquired  pozver,  either  as  a  receptivity  or  as  an 
energy,  is,  in  the  first  place,  the  product  of  a  healthy 
grozvth  of  the  physical  and  mental  organism. 

{a).  A  healthy  growth  is  largely  the  product  of  a 
proper  supply  of  suitable  food.  Body  and  mind  are 
alike  dependent  for  their  growth  upon  this  condition. 
The  food  of  the  former  is  matter,  of  the  latter  truth. 
The  food  of  each,  in  order  that  it  may  promote  a 
healthy  growth  of  the  organism,  must  be  subjected 
to  the  same  process,  namely,  digestion  and  assimila- 
tion.    A  healthy  mental  growth  is  just  as  dependent 


PHYSICAL  AND  MENTAL  POWER.  1 7 

upon  the  digestion  and  assimilation  of  tyntli  as  a 
healthy  physical  growth  is  dependent  upon  the  di- 
gestion and  assimilation  of  matter. 

(li).  Suitable  food  means  such  a  combination  and 
variety  of  physical  and  mental  food,  supplied  at  one 
and  the  same  time,  as  contains  ail  the  elements  that  are 
necessary  not  only  to  develop  bone  and  muscle  and 
nerve,  but  also  the  more  subtle  organism  of  the  mind. 
Only  such  food  can  minister  properly  to  the  healthy 
growth  of  both  body  and  mind. 

{c).  It  should  be  further  carefully  noted,  that  food, 
possessing  the  elements  necessary  to  develop  one  phase 
of  the  organism,  may  be  entirely  lacking  in  the 
elements  necessary  to  develop  other  phases.  For  ex- 
ample, food  which  is  only  fitted  to  produce  muscular 
tissue,  is  lacking  in  some  of  the  elements  necessary  to 
produce  bone.  In  like  manner  such  truth,  or  mental 
aliment,  as  is  fitted  to  nourish  only  the  intellectual 
phase  of  the  mental  organism,  is  lacking  in  what  is 
necessary  to  supply  nourishment  to  the  moral  and 
spiritual  phases  of  this  organism.  Hence  an  educa- 
tional process  which  supplies  only,  or  even  chiefly,  an 
intellectual  aliment  must  fail  in  developing  moral  and 
spiritual  power. 

12.  PiK^'cr  botli  as  a  receptivity  and  an  energy  is, 
in  the  second  place,  the  product  of  the  right  or  mu- 
tually dependent  use  of  all  the  organs  of  the  body 
and  faculties  of  the  mind. 

{a).   Activity   is    one   of    the    necessary   laws  of  all 


1 8  r/aixciPLEs  of  education: 

healthy  growth  or  development.  The  activity  of  both 
the  organs  of  the  body  and  faculties  of  the  mind  is  of 
two  kinds,  namely,  that  which  originates  entirely  with- 
in these  organs  and  faculties,  and  that  which  originates 
in  an  operative  connection  formed  between  them  and 
what  is  outside  of  themselves.  This  latter  is  what  is 
generally  known  as  zcork.  The  continued  and  healthy 
existence  of  the  former  activity  is  dependent  upon  the 
latter.  Any  organ  of  the  body  or  faculty  of  the  mind, 
which  becomes  absolutely  inactive  in  the  latter  sense, 
must  also  cease  very  soon  to  be  active  in  the  former. 

{b).  Body  and  mind  are  constructed  so  that  the  or- 
gans of  the  one  and  the  faculties  of  the  other  are  de- 
signed for  work,  or,  in  other  words,  are  designed  to 
accomplish  certain  definite  ends  or  purposes  outside 
of  themselves.  For  example,  the  hand  connects  the 
body  mechanically  with  the  outside  world,  the  eye 
sensitively  or  receptively,  and  the  will  causatively. 
In  accomplishing  the  ends  or  purposes  outside  of 
themselves,  it  should  be  noted  that  the  organs  of 
the  body  and  faculties  of  the  mind  are  complemen- 
tary to  each  other,  and  hence  that  the  activity  of 
the  one  is  dependent  upon  the  activity  of  the  other. 

(r).  Power  both  as  a  receptivity  and  an  energy 
is  evolved  or  developed  in  the  act  of  performing 
work  as  defined  in  {a)  and  (/>).  This  fact  is  verified 
by  universal  experience.  It  is  a  matter  of  common 
observation,  that  use  or  work  develops  additional 
energies  in  the  arm  of  the  blacksmith,  in  the  reason- 
ing  faculties    of   the    mathematician    and  in   the  will 


PHYSICAL  AND  MENTAL  POWER.  IQ 

of  the  man  whose  duty  it  is  to  control  the  action 
of  others.  It  is  equally  a  matter  of  common  obser- 
vation that  use  or  work  develops  additional  recep- 
tivity or  sensitiveness  in  the  eye  of  the  artist,  in 
the  ear  of  the  musician,  in  the  imagination  of  the 
poet,  in  the  perception  of  the  thinker,  in  the  con- 
science of  the  man  of  moral  efforts,  and  in  the  spirit 
of  the  man  who  walks  with  God. 

(c/).  It  must  be  further  observed  that  the  evolu- 
tion or  development  of  power,  in  its  fullest  and  best 
sense,  requires  the  natural  and  unconstrained  use  of 
all  the  possibilities  of  the  entire  man.  It  requires 
such  a  use  or  work  as  will  call  into  full  systematic 
and  harmonious  exercise  each  organ  of  the  body 
and  faculty  of  the  mind.  This  requires  the  continuous 
and  regular  adjustment  of  work  and  appliances  to  the 
actual  condition  of  both  organs  and  faculties  as  they 
progress  from  one  stage  of    development  to  another. 

12,'  A  can  fill  analysis  of  the  entire  phenomena  of 
poiver  as  an  cdiccational  product  ivill  justify  the  fol- 
lowing classification  : 

.     ,    ,-,          ^-   •,.      N  fi-   Physical. 

S    ^-   1-^^cept'Vity.  )  2    Intellectual. 

(II.  Energy.         >  U-  Spiritual. 

{a).  Physical,  intellectual  and  moral  power  have,  each 
of  them,  a  germinal  existence  in  the  constitution  of 
every  human  being,  and  are  susceptible  of  develop- 
ment, as  set  forth  in  Arts,  i  \  and  \2.     Spiritual  power 


20  PRTNCIPLES   OF  EDUCATION. 

begins  also  in  a  germ  implanted  in  the  constitution. 
Different  views  prevail,  however,  as  to  the  nature  and 
origin  of  this  germinal  power.  Reference  will  be  made 
to  this  in  the  notes  on  the  study  of  the  English  Bible. 
Here  it  must  simply  be  observed  that  development 
results  from  spiritual  aliment  and  spiritual  activity. 

{li).  These  four  classes  of  phenomena,  while  neces- 
sarily blended  together  as  the  one  manifestation  of 
the  complex  unit  man,  are,  nevertheless,  separated  one 
from  the  other  by  marked  characteristics.  These  char- 
acteristics are  unmistakable,  although,  as  in  the  case  of 
vegetal  and  animal  life,  it  may  be  difficult,  if  not  im- 
possible, to  draw  a  sharp  line  of  separation  indicating 
definitely  the  boundary  of  each.  This  is  particularly 
true  of  intellectual,  moral  and  spiritual  power.  The 
following  indicates  in  a  general  way  the  sphere  in  which 
each  class  of  power  manifests  itself. 

(r).  Physical  power  manifests  itself  in  feats  of  strength 
and  agility,  in  graceful  actions,  in  the  artistic  exercise 
of  special  organs  of  the  body — as  |:he  hand — in  han- 
dling tools  of  all  sorts,  in  performing,  by  the  use  of 
tools,  all  kinds  of  work,  in  connecting  through  the 
organs  of  sense  the  mind  with  the  external  world,  etc, 

[li).  Intellectual  power  manifests  itself  in  thought,  in 
searching  into  the  nature  of  things,  in  discovering  the 
origin  and  causes  of  all  phenomena,  in  the  acquisition 
and  application  of  knowledge,  in  conducting  courses  of 
intricate  and  logical  reasoning,  etc. 

{e).  Moral  power  manifests  itself  in  recognizing  and 
enforcing  the  rights  and  obligations  of  self  and  of  all 


RIGHT  HABITS.  21 


men,  in  sympathetic  and  self-sacrificing  efforts  for  the 
relief  of  all  kinds  of  distress  and  suffering,  and  for  the 
highest  good  of  all  men,  in  clear  and  well-defined  per- 
ceptions of  right  and  wrong,  in  exercising  that  kind  of 
courage  that  dares  to  do  right  under  all  conditions  and 
circumstances,  etc. 

(/).  Spiritual  power  manifests  itself  in  lifting  up  all 
that  pertains  to  physical,  intellectual  and  moral  power 
into  a  life  of  consecration  to  God,  a  life  of  faith  and 
works  modeled  after  the  life  of  Christ,  etc. 

RIGHT  HABITS. 

14.  Habits  are  iiid/tccd  states  of  the  body  or  of  the 
mind  through  lohieh  the  power  residiiii^  in  eaeh  is  ef- 
fectively used  in  perforniiug  work  or  in  aceoniplisJiing 
given  ends  without  the  conseious  exereise  of  the  intel- 
ligence and  zvill. 

(rt).  It  should  be  carefully  noted  that  taste  is  very 
generally  mistaken  for  habits.  For  example,  we  speak 
of  a  man  forming  the  habit  of  using  tobacco,  drinking 
intoxicating  liquors,  and  of  reading  trashy  and  immoral 
books.  In  such  cases  as  this,  what  is  formed  is  not  a 
habitat  all,  but  a  strong  and  vitiated  taste.  Habit, 
as  the  definition  indicates,  is  an  induced  state  of  the 
body  or  mind  which  fits  a  person  for  the  exercise  of 
the  energy  or  power  he  possesses  in  performing  some 
given  work.  Taste,  on  the  other  hand,  attracts  its 
possessor  to  some  subjective  enjoyment,  or  guides  him 
in  the  execution  of  his  ideals. 


22  PA'/NCII'LES  OF  EDUCATION. 

{/>).  In  restricting  the  word  habit  to  acquired  or  in- 
duced states  of  the  body  or  mind,  it  is  not  intended  to 
reject  the  fact,  now  so  well  established,  that  certain 
aptitudes  of  both  body  and  mind  are  inherited.  The 
cunning  of  the  hand,  the  eye  and  the  ear,  as  well  as 
the  power  for  certain  subtle  mental  work,  passes  from 
the  parent  to  the  child.  This  is  true,  and  such  in- 
herited aptitudes  must  be  treated  as  a  part  of  the 
child's  original  capital ;  but  the  educator  is,  however, 
specially  interested  in  what  can  be  added  to  this  by 
acquisition. 

{(■).  The  body  and  mind  are  endowed  with  power, 
(Art.  8.)  Habit  alone  is  the  medium  through  which 
this  power  can  be  effectively  utilized  in  performing 
work.  The  truth  of  this  statement  may  be  readily 
shown  by  reference  to  any  sort  of  mechanical  skill. 
Take,  for  example,  the  hand  ;  it  is  endowed  naturally 
with  the  power  of  producing  almost  an  infinite  variety 
of  motions.  It  is  also  subject,  in  a  certain  sense,  to  the 
direction  of  the  mind.  Does  this  fit  it  to  handle  suc- 
cessfully tools  of  any  sort  ?  All  will  answer  emphati- 
cally, no.  Practice  is  needed  in  order  to  do  this.  But 
what  is  meant  by  this  practice  ?  Simply  this,  that  a 
persistent  and  continuous  repetition,  through  an  effort 
of  the  intelligence  and  will,  of  the  motions  of  the 
hand,  necessary  to  do  a  given  kind  of  work  by  the 
use  of  certain  tools,  induces  a  state  of  the  organism 
concerned  in  producing  these  motions  which  we  call 
habit.  Just  here  it  is  very  important,  in  order  to 
locate  rightly  the  teacher's    work,  that    we  note  with 


RIGHT  habits:.  23 


some  care  the  nature  and  use  of  these  induced   states 
or  habits. 

{d).  In  the  above  example  the  motions  of  the  hand 
in  using  the  tools  are  at  first  produced,  very  imper- 
fectly and  slowly,  by  the  exercise  of  a  strong  effort  of 
the  intelligence  and  will.  By  persisting,  however,  in 
the  practice,  dexterity  is  gradually  acquired,  and  the 
necessary  effort  of  the  intelligence  and  will  gradually 
diminishes,  until  finally  the  work  is  performed  with 
rapidity  and  case,  and  with  almost  no  conscious  effort. 
The  formation  of  all  habits,  whether  of  body  or  mind, 
follows  substantially  the  law  here  illustrated.  It  will 
therefore  be  observed  that  as  rapidly  as  habits  are  per- 
fectly formed,  conserved  physical  and  mental  power 
can  be  applied  almost,  if  not  altogether,  unconscious- 
ly, in  the  performance  of  work.  In  this  case,  the  exer- 
cise of  the  intelligence  and  will  ceases  to  be  neces- 
sary to  direct  and  control  the  muscular  and  nerve 
energy  or  mental  energy  by  which  the  work  is  per- 
formed. When  this  point  is  reached,  workmanship  of 
a  high  order  becomes  possible.  But  why  is  this  ?  The 
answer  is  plain.  The  mental  energy,  that  was  before 
required  to  handle  and  direct  the  tools,  is  now  used  in 
studying  and  perfecting  the  ideal  as  the  work  pro- 
gresses ;  hence  the  improved  results.  Universal  ex- 
perience verifies  this  position.  A  first-class  mechanic 
is,  in  every  instance,  a  man  who  has  converted  the  use 
of  each  tool  that  he  handles  into  a  perfect  habit,  and 
hence  who  is  able,  while  doing  a  piece  of  work,  to 
give  his  whole    attention    to  shaping  everything  with 


24  rRiNCirr.ES  of  hducat/oa'. 

reference    to    the  finish  and  perfection     of    the    work 
itself. 

(«•).  What  has  just  been  stated  as  true  of  mechanical 
effort  holds  equally  true  of  all  departments  of  art. 
Finger  and  foot  moveoients,  for  example,  in  piano  and 
organ  music,  must  become  habits  or  unconscious  acts 
before  the  player  can  produce  any  effects  of  a  high 
order.  To  produce  such  effects,  the  intelligence  and 
will  must  be  perfectly  free  and  directed  to  the  ideal 
which  the  artist  seeks  to  make  real  in  his  own  mind 
and  in  the  mind  of  his  hearers.  Painters,  sculptors, 
orators  and  artists  of  every  sort  are  equally  as  depend- 
ent as  the  musician  upon  the  adaptation  and  perfec- 
tion of  the  habits  formed.  They  can  never  produce  a 
high  order  of  results,  until,  by  the  formation  of  habits, 
the  power  of  the  intelligence  and  will  is  left  entirely 
free  to  be  used  in  studying  and  shaping  effects,  rather 
than  in  directing  and  guiding  purely  mechanical  move- 
ments. 

(/).  It  should  further  be  noted  that  habits  are  no 
more  necessary  as  conditions  of  efficient  work  where 
t'ie  body  plays  so  important  a  part  than  they  are  where 
mind  alone  is  concerned.  A  single  example  will 
illustrate  this.  The  power  of  continued  attention  is  a 
habit  ox  induced  state  of  the  mind.  In  the  case  of  very 
young  children  this  power  scarcely  exists.  This 
is  also  true  to  a  large  extent  of  persons  of  mature 
years.  In  the  first  attempt  at  real  study  it  requires  a 
struggle,  a  strong  effort  of  the  will,  to  hold  the  mind 
continuously  upon  one    point.       This  fact    is  clear  in 


RIGHT  HABITS.  2$ 

every  person's  experience.  But  there  is  another  fact 
equally  clear,  namely,  that  the  persistent  and  con- 
tinuous effort  of  the  will  in  holding  the  attention  in- 
duces a  state  of  mind  in  which  the  exercise  of  this 
will-power  becomes  gradually  less  and  less  necessary. 
Indeed,  as  in  the  case  of  the  use  of  tools,  so  in  this, 
the  point  may  be  reached  where  the  conscious  exercise 
of  the  will  is  only  necessary  to  initiate  the  act  of  atten- 
tion. This  is  exactly  the  condition  of  persons  who, 
when  their  attention  is  turned  to  a  subject,  become 
entirely  unconscious  of  their  surroundings,  and  of 
everything  but  the  matter  under  consideration. 

(^).  In  view  of  what  has  just  been  stated,  a  man 
properly  fitted  to  be  an  efficient  worker,  either  with 
his  body  or  mind,  is  in  a  very  real  sense,  a  "  bundle  of 
habits."  This  fact  is  not  sufficiently  recognized.  The 
acquisition  of  knowledge,  and  not  habits,  is  the  chief 
if  not  the  only  end  of  the  educational  effiDrts  of  our 
schools  and  colleges.  This  is  certainly  a  great  mis- 
take. In  this  course  the  fact  is  overlooked  that  cer- 
tain kinds  of  knowledge  are  of  little  or  no  value,  un- 
less accompanied  by  corresponding  habits.  As  an 
example  of  this  may  be  named  a  knowledge  of  gram- 
mar, composition  or  rhetoric.  A  pupil  may  acquire  a 
very  complete  knowledge  of  all  the  facts  and  prin- 
ciples of  grammar  and  rhetoric,  and  yet  be  utterly 
unable  to  speak  or  write  correctly.  To  become  able 
to  speak  or  write  correctly  is  not  the  product  of 
knowledge,  but  of  habit.  Hence  it  comes  to  pass,  not 
unfrequently,  that  persons,  entirely  ignorant  of  gram- 


26  PA'/NCII'L/CS  OF  EDUCATION. 


mar,  as  taught  in  our  schools,  speak  and  write  the 
English  language  more  correctly  than  many  who  have 
spent  years  in  acquiring  an  exhaustive  technical 
knowledge  of  the  subject. 

(//).  It  should  here  be  :arefully  noted  that  in  the 
entire  range  of  subjects  which  compose  an  elemen- 
tary education,  the  chief  thing  to  be  acquired  is  not 
knowledge,  but  habits.  This  must  be  evident  to 
every  educator  who  has  given  the  subject  any  consid- 
eration. In  all  elementary  work  the  acquisition  of  the 
art  of  doing  is  the  important  thing,  and  should  xq- 
cc'wQ  first  attention.  A  perfect  knowledge,  for  example, 
of  all  the  rules  that  have  ever  been  made  regarding 
reading  will  never  make  a  good  reader.  The  power 
to  read  with  expression  means  the  acquisition  of  an 
art;  it  means  the  training  of  organs,  and  hence  the 
formation  of  habits.  But  what  is  true  of  reading  is 
equally  true  of  spelling,  of  writing,  of  arithmetic,  of 
grammar,  and  of  composition.  In  each  of  these  sub- 
jects, the  art  or  habit  of  doing  certain  things  in  a 
certain  way  is  the  chief  object  to  be  accomplished  by 
both  teacher  and  pupil. 

{i).  Whatis  true  in  regard  to  the  acquisition  of  habits 
in  an  elementary  education  is  equally  true  of  higher 
education.  It  should  be  observed,  however,  that  after 
passing  from  the  elementary  to  the  more  advanced 
stages  of  work,  the  habits  acquired  have  reference  not 
so  much  to  the  physical  as  to  the  intellectual,  moral 
and  spiritual  factors  of  the  nature.  When  habits  of 
the  right  sort  arc  not  formed,  with  reference  to  each 


RIGHT  HABITS.  2/ 


of  these  factors,  the  education  is  very  imperfect ;  it 
means  but  very  little.  A  wide  range  of  knowledge 
may  be  acquired,  but  this  will  serve  scarcely  any 
purpose  in  real  life.  A  large  share  of  it  must,  in  the 
very  nature  of  things,  disappear  as  soon  as  the  school 
or  college  is  left.  What  will  be  of  real  service  in 
the  life  work  is  the  man  that  the  training  afforded 
has  produced.  But  the  man  does  not  mean  knowl- 
edge, however  valuable  this  may  be  ;  it  means  the 
power  acquired  and  the  habits  and  tastes  formed  by 
which  this  power  can  be  utilized.  It  is  the  acquisi- 
tion of  these  alone  that  will  make  the  man  felt  in 
his  contact  with  his  fellows,  and  that  will  give 
him  success  in  whatever  calling  in  life  he  may  en- 
gage. 

(y).  From  the  foregoing  suggestion  on  the  nature 
and  use  of  habits,  it  will  be  readily  seen  tliat  they 
constitute  a  very  important  factor  in  a  symmetrical 
education.  Power  without  right  habits  is  of  com- 
paratively little  value,  inasmuch  as  habits  constitute 
the  only  medium  through  which  power  can  be  effec- 
tively utilized  in  performing  work.  It  is  also  not 
undervaluing  knowledge  as  one  of  the  principal  fac- 
tors of  an  education,  when  it  is  said,  that  its  acqui- 
sition is  of  much  less  importance  in  the  development 
of  a  vigorous  and  symmetrical  manhood  than  the  ac- 
quisition of  power  and  right  habits.  Too  much  stress, 
therefore,  cannot  be  placed  upon  the  formation  of 
right  habits  as  an  essential  part  of  a  true  edu- 
cation. 


28  PRINCirLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

15.  Habits  may  be  variously  classified  according  to 
the  end  or  purpose  to  be  served  by  the  classification. 

{a).  They  may  be  classified,  for  example,  with 
reference  to  their  source  or  nature  into  physical  and 
mental  habits,  and  with  reference  to  their  products 
or  results  into  general  and  special  habits. 

{b).  The  following  presents  the  classification  adopted 
in  these  notes  : 

!i.  Special  )  i  i.  Physical 

>  These  are  <  C  {a).  Intellectual 

2.  General)  (2.  Mental    <  [b).  Moral 

(  (i).  Spiritual 

(<).  Special  habits  will  not  be  outlined  beyond 
pointing  out  their  nature  and  place  as  factors  of  edu- 
cation. Their  discussion  belongs  properly  to  profes- 
sional or  special  education,  and  includes  a  much 
wider  range  of  details  than  is  intended  to  be  cov- 
ered in  these  notes. 

16.  A  special  habit  may  be  defined  as  a  habit  zuhich 
id  acquired  for  the  purpose  of  performing  some  one 
definite  kind  of  zvork. 

{a).  Every  special  work,  which  organs  of  the  body 
or  faculties  of  the  mind  are  intended  to  perform,  ne- 
cessitates, for  its  easy  and  perfect  performance,  the 
acquisition  of  special  habits  or  aptitudes.  For  ex- 
ample, the  fingers  are  intended  to  perform,  and  do 
perform,  an  indefinite  range  of  special  kinds  of  work. 
But  it  is  a  well-known  fact  to  every  one,  that  the 
intelligence  and  will  cannot  make  the  fingers  instru- 
mental in  doing  finished  work  in  any  line  whatsoever. 


RIGHT  HABITS.  29 


until,  by  continued  practice  in  doing-  the  woxV,  fi}igcr- 
Jiabits  are  formed.  When  this  is  done,  the  use  of 
the  intelHgence  and  will  in  directing  the  efforts  of 
the  fingers  becomes  almost  entirely  unnecessary.  The 
art  of  knitting  is  a  good  example  of  this  kind. 
(  (b).  The  range  of  special  habits  is  practically  un- 
limited. The  free  and  effective  use  of  every  imagi- 
nable tool  calls  for  a  special  habit.  The  effective  use, 
also,  of  each  of  the  senses  in  doing  special  kinds  of 
work  necessitates  the  formation  of  special  habits.  The 
artist's  eye,  as  well  as  his  hand,  if  he  would  be  a 
master  in  his  department,  must  acquire  strong  and 
well-defined  habits  of  seeing  things  as  they  really 
are,  and  of  seeing  in  these  things  the  possibilities 
they  possess  of  new  combinations  and  relations, 
which,  when  wrought  out,  will  give  rise  to  new  forms 
of  exquisite  symmetry  and  beauty. 

{c).  The  mind  in  performing  its  work  is  no  less 
dependent  upon  special  habits  than  the  body.  The 
intellectual  worker,  for  example,  who  can  only  hold 
his  mind  to  a  given  line  of  thought  by  a  constant 
effort  of  his  will,  is  in  no  better  condition  to  do  his 
work  than  the  mechanic,  who,  by  a  similar  effort  of 
his  will,  handles  his  tools,  lioth,  so  long  as  their 
work  is  done  in  this  way,  must  equally  fail  to  pro- 
duce finished  results. 

17.  A  general  habit  may  be  defined  as  a  habit, 
the  exercise  of  which  necessitates  the  formation  of  spe- 
cial habits,  and  zvhich  also  of  itself  serves  to  aeeom- 


30  rRfNCIPLES   OF  EDUCATION. 


pl'tslt,  not  one  bnt  several  ends,  differing  in  their  na- 
ture and  purpose. 

{a).  The  habit  of  doing  well  evcrythinj^  in  the  pro- 
duction of  which  the  organs  of  the  body  arc  con- 
cerned is  a  good  example  of  a  general  habit.  This 
habit,  it  will  be  readily  seen,  affects  the  quality  and 
the  exercise  of  a  wide  range  of  special  habits.  For 
example,  take  the  case  of  a  mechanic  in  whom  this 
habit  is  fully  established  ;  he  will  not  be  satisfied 
with  acquiring  imperfectly  the  minimum  of  special 
habits  necessary  for  the  handling  of  the  tools  of  his 
special  line  of  work.  No,  he  must  possess  more  than 
this.  He  will  give  himself  no  rest  until  the  special 
habits  required  have  reached  such  a  degree  of  per- 
fection as  will  enable  him  to  perform  what  he  under- 
takes in  a  workmanlike  manner. 

(/').  The  general  habits  which  a  man  acquires 
affect  not  only  the  quality  and  exercise  of  groups  of 
special  habits  which  serve  to  perform  a  given  work, 
but  each  of  them  affects  in  a  peculiar  manner  the 
tendencies  and  activities  of  the  entire  man.  The 
general  habit,  for  example,  referred  to  in  {a),  when 
fully  established,  will  give  tone  and  character  to  every 
kind  of  work  to  which  the  man  possessing  it  may 
turn  his  attention.  Should  he  even  pass  from  manual 
to  mental  work,  the  power  and  influence  of  this  habit 
acquired  in  the  former  will  at  once  pass  over  into 
the  latter  kind  of  work. 

(r).  In  view  of  the  nature  of  general  habits  and 
their  peculiar   relation    to  special  habits,   their  impor- 


GENERAL  PHYSICAL  HABITS..  31 


tancc  as  a  chief  element  in  a  sound  education  cannot 
be  overestimated.  It  is  not  too  much,  therefore,  to 
say  that  to  assist  and  wisely  direct  his  pupils  in  form- 
ing right  general  habits  is  a  first  work  of  the  true 
educator.  When  this  work  is  well  done,  the  special 
habits  necessary  for  any  given  line  of  effort  will 
be  readily  formed  whenever  required. 

The  following  brief  outline  indicates  the  most  im- 
portant general  habits  and  their  special  province  and 
use  as  factors  of  a  general  education. 

GENERAL  PHYSICAL  HABITS. 

1 8.  The  habit  of  being-  constantly  active  under  all 
legitimate  conditions. 

{a).  Physical  activity  is  the  result  of  a  natural  or 
of  an  induced  state  of  the  body.  The  activity  of 
most,  if  not  all,  young  children  is  an  example  of  the 
former.  The  latter  constitutes  a  habit.  A  good 
example  of  this  habit  is  found  in  the  case  of  a  man 
who,  because  of  constant  activity,  has  induced  such 
a  state  of  his  body  as  makes  him  uneasy  and  dis- 
contented wiicn  he  ceases  to  be  engaged  in  active 
work.  When  this  habit  is  formed,  everything  under- 
taken will  be  executed  promptly  and  with  energy. 

{b).  This  habit  cannot  be  formed  when  only  one  line 
of  activity  is  pursued.  Such  a  course  induces  just  the 
opposite  habit ;  namely,  that  of  laziness.  This  is 
illustrated  very  clearly  in  the  case  of  professional 
performers  of  any  sort.        Such   performers  arc  capa- 


32  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 


blc  of  intense  activity  in  their  chosen  hne.  But 
when  not  engaged  in  this  chosen  line,  they  find 
that  to  be  active  is  a  great  burden.  They  have,  in 
fact,  induced  the  habit  of  indolence  or  laziness.  Pro- 
fessional firemen,  professional  ball-players,  etc.,  are 
examples  of  this  sort. 

19.  TJic  habit  of  doing  well  everything  in  which 
the  organs  of   tJic  body  are  concerjied. 

{a).  This  habit  is  usually  formed  through  the  influ- 
ence of  models.  For  example,  the  child  imitates  the 
parents  until  he  cannot  do  otherwise  than  act  as  they 
act,  perform  his  work  as  they  perform  it.  In  this  case 
it  is  literally  true  that  as  the  parent  is,  so  is  the  child. 
This  peculiar  influence  extends  to  all  relations  of  life. 
But  nowhere  is  its  power  shown  so  fully  as  in  the  case 
of  parents  and  teachers.  They  are  the  models,  which 
are  largely  the  determining  factors  in  the  life  of  all 
under  their  care. 

(b).  When  this  habit  is  fully  established,  it  will  pro- 
duce uneasiness  and  dissatisfaction  in  regard  to  every- 
thing that  is  not  well  done,  or  that  shows  carelessness 
in  its  execution.  It  will,  in  short,  affect  the  execution 
of  everything  in  which  the  body  is  the  agent.  It  will 
determine  alike,  for  example,  the  way  in  which  artists, 
mechanics,  farmers,  housekeepers,  etc.,  perform  their 
work. 

20.  TJic  habit  of  employing,  always,  the  organs  of 
the  body  to  accomplish  right  and  useful  ends. 


GENERAL  PHYSICAL  HABITS.  33 

{a).  The  ability  to  conserve  and  economize  physical 
energy  is  certainly  a  very  important  acquisition,  yet 
little  attention  is  given  in  our  educational  processes  to 
this  acquisition.  Hence,  the  literal  waste  of  physical 
power  in  the  life  of  almost  every  man  is  enormous. 
The  old  maxim,  "  Take  care  of  the  pennies,  and  the 
pounds  will  take  care  of  themselves,"  if  applied  to 
physical  energy,  would  yield  quite  as  valuable  results 
as  when  applied  to  money  matters.  But  can  it  be 
applied  ?  Certainly  it  can,  and  should  be.  The  habit 
of  employing  the  physical  energy  which  God  has 
given  us  to  accomplish  right  and  useful  ends  can  be 
formed  just  as  readily  as  the  habit  of  handling  money 
in  the  same  way.  Piiysical  energy  is  capital  stock 
just  as  much  as  money  and  other  property  ;  and  more, 
it  is  the  chief  if  not  the  only  capital  stock  possessed 
by  the  great  mass  of  mankind.  How  important,  then, 
that  a  habit  which  will  secure  the  right  use  of  this 
universal  possession  should  be  acquired. 

{b).  When  this  habit  is  formed,  it  will  determine 
very  largely,  if  not  entirely,  the  use  that  will  be  made 
of  physical  energy,  not  only  in  our  daily  work,  but 
also  in  our  times  of  recreation  and  amusements. 
Recreation  and  amusements  are  as  necessary  to  the 
proper  and  effective  use  of  the  mind  and  body  as 
food.  But  alas  !  just  as  in  the  case  of  the  use  of 
food,  so  in  this :  the  abuse  is  almost  universal. 
Knowledge  will  not  save  men  from  this  abuse  in 
either  case.  This  is  evident  in  the  matter  of  food 
and  drink,  for  the  men  that  know  the  most  about  both 


34  PRINCTPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

arc  not  infrequently  the  victims  of  the  greatest 
abuse.  A  confirmed  habit  of  right  hving,  and  not 
knowledge,  is  the  safeguard  from  this  abuse.  In 
like  manner,  a  confirmed  habit  of  using  physical 
energy  always  for  right  and  useful  ends  is  the  safe- 
guard against  a  large  share  of  the  abuses  growing  out 
of  modern  recreations  and  amusements. 

The  three  "  General  Physical  Habits "  to  which 
attention  has  just  been  called,  if  acquired,  will  secure 
to  a  very  large  extent  the  proper  and  efficient  use 
of  the  body.  They  constitute  essential  conditions,  if 
not  the  only  key  to  real  success  in  any  kind  of  exer- 
cise or  work  dependent  upon  the  expenditure  of  phys- 
ical energy. 

GENERAL   INTELLECTUAL   HABITS. 

The  importance  of  forming  right  intellectual  habits 
cannot  be  overestimated.  The  failure  to  do  so  makes 
effective  intellectual  effort  a  perpetual  drudgery.  The 
most  careful  supervision  of  the  work  of  the  young 
pupil  is  necessary  to  avert  this  result.  Habits  are 
readily  formed  at  this  time.  During  this  period  one 
of  the  most  important  things  to  accomplish  is  the 
formation  of  right  intellectual  habits.  Failing  to  do 
this,  whatever  the  pupil's  intellectual  ability  may  be, 
he  will  fail  largely  in  using  his  ability  effectively, 
and  with  the  largest  and  best  results.  The  follow- 
ing constitute  the  most  important  general  intellec- 
tual habits  to  be  acquired  during  the  formative  pe- 
riod 


GENERAL  INTELLECTUAL  HABITS.  35 

2 1 .  The  habit  of  attention,  or  the  poioer  of  center- 
ing mental  oiergy  npon  a  given  snbject,  or  of  excluding 
from  consciousness  everything  zohich  does  not  pertain 
strictly  to  the  subject  under  consideration. 

{a).  Each  human  being  is  possessed  of  a  definite 
amount  of  mental  energy,  natural  (Art.  lo)  and  ac- 
quired (Art.  ii).  This  energy  is  capable  of  being 
applied  as  a  unit,  of  being  completely  centered  upon 
one  definite  work  ;  or,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  capa- 
ble of  being  divided  and  hence  distributed  among 
several  kinds  of  work.  When  the  former  condition 
prevails,  the  mind  exhibits  its  maximum  power  of 
effort.  This  condition  is,  however,  rarely  if  ever 
reached.  But  the  nearer  it  is  approached,  the  more 
effectively  can  mental  energy  be  applied  in  perform- 
ing any  given  work.  The  habit  of  attention  is  the 
chief  if  not  the  only  medium  through  which  this 
approach  can  be  made,  hence  its  formation  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  successful  mental  effort. 

(/;).  This  habit  is,  in  the  first  place,  of  the  nature 
of  a  centralizing  power.  It  operates  upon  the  divided 
elements  of  mental  energy  very  much  as  the  burn- 
ing-glass operates  upon  the  divided  ra)S  of  the  sun. 
It  brings  all  of  those  elements  to  a  focus.  And  just 
as  combustion  necessarily  follows  when  the  rays  of 
the  sun  are  brought  to  a  focus  by  the  burning-glass, 
so  the  analysis  or  decomposition  of  difficult  complex- 
truths  is  at  once  accomplished  when  all  the  elements 
of  mental  energy  are  brought  to  a  proper  focus  by 
the  habit  of  attention. 


36  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

(r).  This  habit  is,  in  the  second  place,  of  the  na- 
ture of  an  abstracting  power,  a  power  by  which  th^ 
mind  withdraws  itseh"  from  a  conscious  relation  t^ 
everything  but  the  subject  under  immediate  consid- 
eration. This  means  such  a  state  of  the  mind  as  ex- 
cludes from  its  entire  operations  all  that  is  necessarily 
forced  upon  it  by  its  connection  with  the  organs  of 
sense  and  their  environments,  and  also  with  its  own 
past  experiences.  This  means,  in  short,  such  a  state 
of  being  as  effectually  closes  for  a  time  all  active 
conscious  relations  between  the  mind  and  everything 
else,  but  one  single  absorbing  subject.  That  such  a 
state  of  being  is  possible,  is  fully  certified  by  ex- 
treme cases  of  what  is  known  as  absent-minded- 
ness. 

22.  The  habit  of  conducting  observations,  and,  where 
necessary,  experiments  in  an  orderly,  accurate  and  ex- 
haustive manner. 

{a).  In  the  earlier  stages  of  the  pupil's  work  too 
much  importance  cannot  be  attached  to  the  forma- 
tion of  this  habit.  At  that  time  he  is  naturally  care- 
less, and  in  haste  to  reach  results.  This  tendency  must 
be  checked  by  impressing  him  with  the  fact  that  the 
way  in  which  his  work  is  done  is  far  more  impor- 
tant to  him  than  results. 

(/').  Observation  covers  a  wider  range  than  the  use 
of  the  eye.  Every  one  of  the  fi\e  senses  has  its 
own  field  of  exercises,  and  each  should  receive 
proper  attention  with  reference  to  this  habit.     Obser- 


GENERAL  INTELLECTUAL  HABITS.  37 

vation  includes,  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  use  of  the 
senses,  their  use  supplemented  by  mechanical  devices. 
The  use  of  the  eye,  supplemented  by  the  microscope 
or  telescope,  is  an  example  of  this  kind. 

{c).  Where  this  habit  is  not  formed,  there  is  no 
safeguard  against  crude,  and,  in  many  instances,  very 
imperfect  and  unwarranted  conclusions  being  drawn 
from  insufficient  premises.  Hence,  without  this  habit, 
reliable  and  real  progress  in  any  line  of  investigation 
is  impossible.  This  statement  applies  not  only  to  the 
physical  senses,  bat  to  all  lines  of  investigation.  The 
necessity  of  this  habit  in  pursuing  successfully  and 
with  safety  investigations  in  language,  philosophy, 
theology,  etc.,  is  as  great  as  in  the  study  of  the  nat- 
ural sciences.  Let  this  habit  be  thoroughly  established 
during  school  life,  and  an  element  is  fixed  in  the 
character  that  will  prove  an  invaluable  help  and  safe- 
guard in  every  department  of  life's  work. 

2"^.  The  habit  of  making  alivays  a  diligcnf  search 
for  the  reason,  or  cause  of  things. 

{a).  Inquisitiveness  is  a  marked  characteristic  of 
child  life.  As  already  stated,  it  lies  at  the  root  of 
all  his  mental  activity.  It  at  first  demands  an  answer 
to  the  question,  "  What  is  it?''  but  its  demand  does 
not  end  here.  It  asks  in  the  second  place  an  answer 
to  the  question,  "  Why  is  this  as  it  is  ?  "  This  in- 
quisitiveness, which  at  first  is  largely  aimless,  if 
properly  directed,  gradually  grows  into  an  intel- 
lectual   habit    of    ijreat  value — a  habit  with<.)ut  which 


38  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 


science    and  philosophy  would    make  but  little  prog 
ress. 

{by  While  it  is  true  that  inquisitiveness  is  a  com- 
mon characteristic  of  child  life,  it  is  not  true  that  all 
can  with  the  same  readiness  form  this  habit.  Indeed, 
there  are  many  cases  where,  unless  taken  at  the 
right  time,  and  handled  with  great  skill,  the  forma- 
tion of  this  habit  is  impossible.  In  such  cases  scien- 
tific and  philosophical  studies  can  be  pursued  only 
in  a  very  superficial  way. 

24.  The  habit  of  careful  reflection,  and  of  close  self- 
gucstioning,  upon  everything  that  is  made  a  subject  of 
study,  as  a  means  of  solving  ajid  explaining  difficul- 
ties. 

{a).  It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  fixed  rule,  that  a 
subject  is  not  properly  seized  by  the  mind  until  re- 
flection and  close  self-questioning  becomes  a  mental 
necessity.  The  truth  of  this  statement  will  become 
evident  when  the  nature  of  genuine  study  is  analyzed. 

{b).  Until  this  habit  is  formed,  the  student  is  not 
in  a  condition  to  pursue  successfully  by  himself  new 
courses  of  investigation.  Nor  is  he  even  in  a  condi- 
tion to  receive  the  full  disciplinary  benefit  of  the 
work  he  actually  does.  Reflection,  meditation  and 
self-questioning  are  of  the  nature  of  a  digestive  pro- 
cess, and  through  this  process  alone  can  truth  be 
dissolved  and  assimilated,  and  made  in  a  proper  sense 
a  personal  possession.  Hence,  it  is  of  first  impor- 
tance that  this  habit  should    be    formed  at   an  early 


GENERAL  INTELLECTUAL  HABITS.  39 

stage  of  the  student's  life.      In  an    elementary  sense, 
very  young  children  can   form  this  habit. 

25.  The  hahit  of  continuing  every  work  undertaken 
itntii  it  is  properly  completed. 

{a).  This  habit  when  formed  gives  continuity  and 
stability  to  every  work  the  student  undertakes.  Dis- 
couragements and  defeats  of  necessity  meet  every, 
one,  not  only  during  school  life,  but  afterwards.  The 
habit  formed  of  persistently  holding  on  to  every 
work  undertaken,  until  it  is  properly  completed,  is 
in  a  large  measure  the  true  solvent  of  these  dis- 
couragements and  defeats. 

{b).  If  this  habit  is  to  be  formed,  parents  and  teach- 
ers must  be  guarded  in  assigning  to  the  child  or 
pupil  such  work,  as  he  can,  in  view  of  his  ability 
and  conditioning  circumstances,  finish  without  over- 
taxing him.  They  must  also  be  guarded  not  under 
any  circumstances  to  accept  of  half-finished  work. 
Young  persons  are  usually  just  about  as  careless  in 
matters   of   this  sort  as  parents  and  teachers  permit. 

26.  T/ie  Itabit  of  forniulating  in  loriting,  correctly 
and  clearly,  every  process  and  result  of  thought  before 
regarding  such  process  and  result   as  fully    mastered. 

{a).  The  importance  of  this  habit  cannot  be  over- 
estimated. It  serves  to  hold  the  student  to  his  work 
until  the  subject  under^examination  is  viewed  from 
all  sides,  and  is  unified  in  his  own  mind.  To  be 
unable  to  commit    to  writing  in  a  plain  and    forcible 


40  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 


manner  'v\'h?.t  has  been  carefully  studied,  is  evidence 
that  the  subject  is  not  yet  fully  and  clearly  defined 
in  the  mind, 

(/;).  The  formation  of  this  habit  is  also  of  first  im- 
portance, because  of  its  practical  nature.  It  matters 
not  in  what  calling  of  Hfe  engaged,  this  habit  can 
be  turned  to  first-class  account.  A  man  who  can 
put  his  thinking  upon  any  subject  in  writing,  in  a 
clear  and  forcible  manner,  all  other  things  being  equal, 
has  always  the  adv^antage  in  any  department  of  work 
over  those  who  cannot  do  this. 

(r).  This  habit  is  usually  found  difficult  to  acquire. 
This  arises  chiefly  from  the  fact  that  the  formation 
of  the  habit  is  not  commenced  early  enough,  and 
when  commenced,  unnatural  methods  ot  expressing 
his  thoughts  are  forced  upon  the  pupil.  If  the  child 
is  taken  at  the  right  time,  and  trained  to  express  in 
written  form  what  he  is  accustomed  to  express  orally, 
he  will  soon  take  real  pleasure  in  putting  in  writing 
his  oral  utterances.  In  this  way  the  desired  habit 
will  soon  be  formed,  and  when  more  advanced,  the 
pupil  will  acquire  tha  power  of  condensing  and  ex- 
pressing his  thinking  in  a  clear  and  forcible  manner. 

GENERAL  MORAL   HABITS. 

It  is  not  what  a  man  knows,  but  what  he  is,  that 
determines  his  real  course  of  life.  In  the  past  far 
too  much  stress  has  been  laid  by  parents  and  teach- 
ers upon  the  importance  of   a    sound    knowledge   of 


GENERAL  MORAL  HABITS.  4I 

moral  truths,  and  of  the  teachings  of  the  Bible  This 
surely  is  important  and  not  to  be  neglected,  but  it  is 
a  fatal  error  to  suppose  that,  where  such  knowledge  is 
acquired,  a  young  person  is  prepared  to  enter  life  fully 
assured  of  pursuing  a  true  and  noble  course.  Such 
knowledge,  in  order  to  secure  this  result,  must  be  more 
than  fixed  formally  in  the  memory  so  as  to  be  readily 
recalled.  It  must  be  embodied  in  a  well  ordered  course 
of  life,  that  will  secure  the  formation  of  permanent  moral 
habits.  Such  habits  will  abide  and  exercise  a  controlling 
influence  upon  the  life,  when  the  knowledge  acquired 
may  fail  entirely  to  guide  and  determine  the  course  of 
conduct  that  should  be  pursued.  The  acquisition,  there- 
fore, of  right  moral  habits  is  of  first  importance.  Without 
such  habits  young  persons  will  find  it  difficult,  if  not  im- 
possible, to  maintain  a  blameless  moral  character,  under 
the  changed  surroundings  which  they  must  usually  en- 
counter, when  they  enter  upon  their  life  work.  Such 
habits  are  also  as  essential,  as  a  preparation  for  effective 
moral  work,  as  physical  and  intellectual  habits  are  as 
a  preparation  for  effective  physical  and  intellectual 
work.  In  the  following  brief  outline  only  such  habits 
are  given  as  experience  has  shown  of  real  value,  in 
maintaining  a  true  manhood,  in  the  midst  of  the  traps, 
pitfalls  and  allurements  of  modern  life. 

27.  TJic  habit  of  rendering  prompt  obedience  to  the 
dictates  of  conscience  and  to  the  rightful  commands  of 
others. 


42  j'RiNC/r/.r.s  of  /•: ducat/ ox. 

{(i).  He  that  has  acquired  fully  tlic  power  to  obey, 
has  in  doing  so  acquired  also  the  power  to  command. 
This  is  the  experience  of  such  as  have  risen  to  posi- 
tions of  command.  They  know  the  full  power  of 
the  expression — He  that  has  fully  mastered  himself 
is  in  a  position,  when  required,  to  master  others. 
Experiences  of  this  kind  emphasize  very  strongly 
the  importance  and  practical  nature  of  this  habit. 

(/;),  In  seeking  to  guide  in  forming  this  habit,  the 
nature  of  real  obedience  must  not  be  overlooked. 
Obedience,  whether  we  refer  to  the  conscience  or  to 
the  command  of  another,  does  not  mean  acts  which 
are  the  products  of  coercion.  The  formal  perform- 
ance of  what  the  parent,  teacher  or  other  agent  may 
require  is  not  necessarily  obedience.  The  boy  who 
does  what  his  father  or  teacher  may  require,  because 
the  rod  is  held  over  his  head,  does  not  obey  in  the 
sense  intended  in  this  habit.  Such  an  act  is,  how- 
ever, sometimes  wrongfully  called  an  act  of  obedi- 
ence. Anything  short  of  a  voluntary  act  should  not 
be  regarded  as  true  obedience. 

{c).  The  formation  of  this  habit  should  commence 
at  the  cradle,  and  it  should  be  perfected  as  the  child 
passes  through  the  development  of  the  three  periods 
of  infancy,  childhood  and  youth.  It  must  be  care- 
fully noted  that  to  obey  either  the  dictates  of  con- 
science, or  the  commands  of  another,  is  compara- 
tively easy  under  one  set  of  conditions,  while  ex- 
ceedingly difficult  under  another.  Hence  this  habit 
can  reach  its  perfected  form  only  after  passing  through 


GENERAL  MORAL  I/AB/T.'^.  43 

the  various  changing    conditions    suppHed    by    these 
three  periods  of  development. 

{ii).  Parents  and  teachers  not  infrequently  fail  in 
securing  the  formation  of  this  habit.  This  is  chiefly 
the  result  of  two  causes.  In  the  first  place  they  make 
demands  which  the  child  cannot  comply  with,  because 
of  lack  of  sufficient  physical,  intellectual,  or  moral  de- 
velopment. For  example,  it  is  not  an  infrequent 
occurrence  for  a  parent  or  teacher  to  demand  of  an 
immature  child  a  course  of  conduct,  which  they  would 
find,  even  with  their  mature  powers,  difficult  to  pursue. 
But  in  the  second  place  the  demands  made  are  not  ac- 
companied by  the  right  kind  of  motives  or  stimuli  to 
enable  the  child  to  obey.  By  motives  or  stimuli  are 
not  meant  promises  of  rewards  in  the  way  of  sweet- 
meats, gifts,  prizes,  etc.,  but  rather  rational  conditions 
and  ends,  which  appeal  both  to  the  conscience  and 
reason. 

28.  T/w  habit  of  sincere  and  careful  reflectioti  upon 
the  effects  of  our  actions,  in  reference  to  ourselves  and 
others,  and  upon  the  reasons  that  make  it  desirable 
that  we  should,  or  should  not,  act   in   any  given  case. 

{a).  Sincere  and  careful  reflection  is  one  of  the 
strongest  safeguards  against  mistakes  in  every  depart- 
ment of  active  life.  But  this  is  specially  true  when 
applied  to  the  effects  of  our  actions  upon  ourselves  and 
others.  "  If  I  had  only  thought,  if  I  had  only  consid- 
ered., how  diffi^rcnt  I  would  have  acted,"  is  almost  the 
universal  statement  of  those  who  fall  into  wrong  and 


44  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

fatal  courses  of  conduct.  "  I  thought  on  my  way  and 
turned  my  feet  unto  thy  testimonies,"  was  the  experi- 
ence of  the  Psalmist.  This  is  also  the  usual  experience 
of  all  who  sincerely  reflect  upon  the  effects  of  their 
actions  upon  themselves  and  others.  How  important, 
therefore,  that  this  habit  should  be  formed  at  an  early 
age. 

{b).  The  natural  course  of  things  in  the  early  life  of 
a  child  makes  it  easy  to  form  this  habit.  His  first  con- 
tact with  the  external  world  in  which  his  mistakes 
bring  to  him  pain  and  suffering  forces  him  to  reflect 
upon  the  effects  of  his  acts  upon  himself  It  leads  him 
also  to  consider  carefully  the  reasons  that  make  it  de- 
sirable that  he  should,  or  should  not,  act.  This  natural 
condition  of  things  properly  utilized  by  parents  and 
teachers  will  result  in  forming  this  habit.  The  child 
only  needs  to  be  encouraged  and  directed  in  order  to 
become  as  thoughtful  in  regard  to  the  effects  of  his 
actions  upon  others  as  upon  himself.  He  commences 
to  be  thoughtful  upon  what  brings  him  suffering  and 
pleasure  through  the  organs  ot  the  body ;  but,  under 
proper  guidance,  he  will  extend  his  thoughtfulness 
to  the  workings  of  his  mind,  as  well  as  his  body. 
This  thoughtfulness  may  be  directed  by  parents  and 
teachers  so  as  to  extend  to  every  act ;  in  short, 
so  that  the  habit  may  be  firmly  formed  of  never  acting 
without  sincere  and  careful  reflection  upon  the  con- 
sequences that  may  follow. 

(r).  From  what  has  just  been  said,  it  will  appear  that 
this    habit  can  be  most  readily    formed    during     the 


GENERAL   MORAL  HABITS.  45 

period  of  infancy  and  childhood.  For  this  there  are 
several  reasons,  but  chief  among  them  is  the  fact,  that 
all  habits  are  most  easily  formed  during  the  plastic  or 
formative  state  of  the  particular  growth  with  which  the 
habit  is  connected.  It  is,  therefore,  all  important  to 
the  future  of  the  child  that  this  and  all  other  moral 
habits  should  receive  attention  at  the  right  time. 
Neglect  here  is  fraught  with  fatal  consequences  to  the 
character  of  the  future  man. 

29.  The  habit  of  treating  witJi  proper  regard  our 
superiors  in  age,  position,  or  ability,  our  equals  in 
every  respeet,  and  our  inferiors  in  one  or  more  respects. 

{a).  The  great  importance  of  this  habit,  its  meaning 
and  binding  nature,  is  extensively  stated  in  God's 
word:  "Render  therefore  to  all  their  dues:  tribute 
to  whom  tribute  is  due ;  custom  to  whom  custom ; 
fear  to  whom  fear ;  honor  to  whom  honor.  Owe  no 
man  anything,  but  to  love  one  another:  for  he  that 
loveth  another  hath  fulfilled  the  law." 

{b).  What  has  been  said  of  the  formation  of  the  pre- 
ceding habit  applies  equally  to  this.  "  As  the  twig  is 
bent  the  tree  's  inclined"  is  literally  true  here.  Let  the 
young  child  be  taught  to  treat  with  proper  regard  su- 
periors, equals  and  inferiors  ;  let  the  habit  of  doing  so 
be  fixed  firmly  upon  him,  and  he  will,  as  he  grows 
to  manhood,  illustrate  in  his  life  the  Bible  require- 
ments in  this  respect. 

{e).  As  the  child  is  largely  a  creature  of  imita- 
tion, tlie    parent  and  teacher  must  place  before  him, 


46  PRINCIPLES   OF  EDUCATION. 


in  their  own  conduct,  a  perfect  example  of  what 
they  want  him  to  be  and  to  do.  It  is  useless  to  talk 
to  the  child  about  being  respectful  to  others,  unless 
the  talk  is  accompanied  by  a  living  example.  Speak 
to  him  politely,  if  you  would  have  him  speak  to  you 
and  others  politely.  Treat  respectfully  and  lovingly 
your  equals  and  inferiors,  if  you  want  the  child  to 
pursue  a  similar  course.  In  short,  apply  the  golden 
rule  to  the  treatment  of  the  child  as  fully  and  as 
literally  as  in  your  dealings  with  those  of  mature  age. 
Do  unto  the  child  as  you  would  the  child  should  do 
unto  you,  and  this  habit  will  soon  become  a  ruhng 
principle  of  the  child's  life. 

30.  The  habit  of  being  strictly  honest  in  dealing 
with  ourselves,  and  in  our  dealings  with  others. 

(rt).  Self-deception  is  one  of  the  chief  causes  of 
wrong  and  even  criminal  courses  of  action.  The  first 
steps  of  a  downward  course  of  life  have  their  origin 
here.  A  deliberate  choice  of  what  is  wrong  in  itself 
is  not  the  usual  beginning  of  a  downward  course.  By 
a  subtle  process  of  self-deception,  what  is  wrong  is 
made  to  appear  right,  and  hence  the  course  of  conduct 
that  follows  is  justified  and  is  considered  the  true  one 
to  pursue.  This  peculiar  tendency  of  our  nature  the 
Bible  places  before  us  in  strong  and  explicit  terms  in 
the  following  language  :  "  The  heart  is  deceitful  above 
all  things  and  desperately  wicked  :  who  can  know  it  ?" 
In  view  of  this  condition  of  things  the  formation  of 
this  habit  is  both  important  and  difficult. 


GENERAL  MORAL  HABITS.  47 

{b).  Notwithstanding  the  natural  difficulties  which 
must  be  encountered  in  forming  this  habit,  much  can 
be  accomplished  if  the  effort  to  do  so  is  commenced 
with  infancy.  There  is  a  degree  of  simplicity  and 
honesly  in  the  ordinary  child-life  that  makes  the 
formation  of  the  habit  possible.  This  seems  to  be 
clearly  implied  in  Christ's  statement  to  his  disciples 
when  he  says,  "  Verily,  I  say  unto  you,  except  ye  be 
converted  and  become  as  little  children,  ye  shall  no: 
enter  into  the  kingdom  ot   Heaven."' 

{c).  The  demand  of  to-day  in  business  life,  in  political 
life,  in  church  life,  and,  indeed,  in  family  life,  is  trans- 
parent honesty  in  our  dealings  with  ourselves  and 
others.  This  demand  calls  for  earnest  and  radical 
efforts  to  cultivate  the  formation  of  this  habit  in  the 
family,  and  in  our  schools  and  colleges. 

31.  The  habit  of  doing  zuith  all  our  might  ivJiat- 
ever  our  intelligence  and  conseienee  may  approve  as 
right. 

{a).  Half-heartedness  is  to  be  avoided  in  doing 
everything,  but  especially  so  in  matters  affecting  our 
moral  character.  A  right  act  or  a  right  course  of  con- 
duct should  not  be  discounted  by  the  way  it  is  per- 
formed. This,  however,  is  very  commonly  done.  Men 
reason  very  correctly  upon  the  most  of  moral  ques- 
tions, but  they  act  as  if  they  did  not  believe  their  own 
reasoning. 

{b).  Young  children  are  naturally  single  in  their  aims. 
Their   whole   energy  is   usually    applied  to    whatever 


48  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

they  may  have  in  hand.  They  differ  widely,  however, 
in  natural  energy  or  force,  but  whatever  they  may  pos- 
sess in  this  respect  is  readily  centered  upon  what  claims 
present  attention.  This  is  peculiarly  true  in  matters 
approved  by  the  intelligence  and  conscience.  Young 
children  are,  therefore,  in  the  best  possible  condition  to 
form  this  habit.  They  need  only  proper  guidance  upon 
the  part  of  parents  and  teachers,  in  the  course  of  their 
early  training,  to  convert  this  natural  tendency  into  a 
strong  and  useful  habit. 

{c).  The  importance  of  forming  this  habit  cannot  be 
overestimated.  When  formed,  it  gives  character  and 
power  to  everything  undertaken.  It  secures  the  con- 
fidence of  all  whom  we  may  seek  to  serve  in  any  way. 
It  even  disarms  the  criticism  of  those  who  may  differ 
widely  from  us  in  our  views  of  what  is  right  and  wrong. 
All  men  tacitly  approve  of  downright  earnestness  in 
executing  what  the  intelligence  and  conscience  recog- 
nize as  right 


^ 


THE   FORMATION   OF   HABITS. 


32.  Habits  are  formed  by  the  continiwiis  and  fre- 
quent repetition,  under  right  conditions,  of  the  act  or 
state  by  tuhich  a  given  end  is  accomplished. 

{a).  There  are  three  elements  concerned  in  the  forma- 
tion of  habits  which  must  be  carefully  noted;  namely, 
the  act  or  state  by  which  the  proposed  end  can  be  ac- 
complished, the  intelligence  which  directs  the  act  or  state 
in  accomplishing  the  given  end,  and  the  will  power  by 


THE  FORMA  TION  OF  HABITS.  49 


which  the  act  or  state  is  produced.  The  process  by 
which  the  habit  of  knitting  is  acquired,  for  example, 
illustrates  these  three  factors  and  substantially  the  way 
in  which  all  habits  are  formed.  When  the  attempt  is 
first  made  to  do  this  work,  the  needles  are  directed 
every  time  by  the  use  of  the  eye,  and  each  motion  is 
produced  by  a  distinct  act  of  the  will.  Both  the  eye 
and  the  will  are  so  occupied  at  this  stage  with  the  act 
to  be  performed  that  attention  cannot  be  given  to  any- 
thing else.  By  practice,  however,  the  use  both  of  the 
eye  and  of  the  will  becomes  less  and  less  necessary. 
Finally  by  long  and  continued  practice  they  cease  to 
be  required  except  to  initiate  the  work.  When  this 
point  is  reached,  the  intelligence  and  will  being  liber- 
ated, other  matters  can  receive  attention  and  be  freely 
discussed  at  the  same  time  the  work  in  hand  is  in 
progress. 

{b).  The  length  of  the  interval  of  time  between  the 
repetitions  of  an  act  or  state  is  an  important  factor  in 
the  formation  of  habits.  For  example,  it  is  evident 
that  the  habit  of  playing  upon  the  piano  can  never 
be  acquired  by  striking  the  keys  in  a  given  scale, 
in  their  proper  order,  an  unlimited  number  of  times, 
assuming  that  no  key  in  the  scale  is  touched  oftener 
than  once  every  ten  days.  It  is,  therefore,  not  repe- 
tition alone  that  is  necccssary  to  form  habits  readily,  but 
repetition  with  the  interval  of  time  between  the  acts  re- 
duced to  its  minimum. 

(r).  The  repetition  of  the  act  or  state  involved  must 
be  consecutive.     It  must  also,  in  order  to  produce  the 


50  PR/XCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

best  effect,  be  continued,  each  time  it  is  undertaken, 
as  long  as  a  normal  condition  of  the  body  and  mind 
can  be  maintained.  The  truth  of  this  position  is  fully 
verified  by  experience.  No  habit  of  any  sort  can  be 
acquired,  within  a  reasonable  length  of  time,  when  this 
condition  is  partially  or  wholly  neglected.  Instances 
of  this  neglect  are  of  frequent  occurrence  in  school 
work.  The  absence  of  well-conducted  drill  exercises, 
which  should  consist  chiefly  of  systematic  repetitions, 
is  an  example  of  this  kind.  The  evil  consequences 
of  such  neglect  are  very  great,  when  we  take  into 
account  the  fact  that  almost  every  work  the  pupil 
undertakes  must  be  reduced  to  a  fixed  habit,  in  order 
to  be  of  practical  value  to  him  in  after-life.  The  study 
of  Arithmetic,  Grammar,  Rhetoric,  Logic,  etc.,  are 
familiar  examples  of  this  sort.  It  is  true  that  these 
subjects  have  a  practical  educational  value  because  of 
the  mental  discipline  they  afford.  But  this  is  not 
half  their  value.  For  example,  the  discipline  acquired 
in  gaining  a  knowledge  of  the  principles  and  laws  of 
Logic  is  important,  but  the  power  and  habit  of  rea- 
soning in  accordance  with  these  principles  and  laws, 
whether  they  are  formulated  as  knowledge  or  not,  is 
far  more  important.  This,  however,  can  only  be  ac- 
quired by  doing,  not  by  knowing.  The  habit  of  rea- 
soning clearly  and  accurately  is  the  product  of  per- 
sistent repetitions  of  acts  of  reasoning. 

(d).  The  readiness  with  which  a  habit  is  formed  de- 
pends upon  a  variety  of  conditions.  Among  these 
conditions  may  be  named  age,  constitutional   tenden- 


THE  FORMA  TION  OF  I^ABITS.  5  I 

cies,  the  relation  of  the  habit  to  be  formed  to  others 
already  formed,  the  exactness  with  which  the  act  or 
state  is  repeated,  and  the  intensity  of  the  conscious- 
ness at  the  time  of  each  repetition. 

33.  The  power  and  influence  of  habits  in  shaping 
and  exccictiiig  onr  course  of  life  depend  largely  upon 
the  conditions  under  which  they  arc  foi'ined. 

{a).  The  truth  of  this  proposition  is  included  in  the 
fact  that  any  past  state  or  experience  of  body  or  mind 
is  capable  of  being  reproduced  in  its  entirety  by  the 
presence  of  one  or  more  of  the  elements  which  consti- 
tuted a  part,  in  the  past,  either  of  the  given  state  or 
experience,  or  of  the  conditions  through  which  it  was 
produced.  The  reproduction  of  past  knowledge  by 
laws  of  association  is  universally  admitted.  But  it 
must  be  noted  here  that  the  application  of  these  laws 
is  not  confined  to  the  reproduction  of  knowledge.  It 
is  co-extensive  with  every  state,  condition  and  opera- 
tion of  the  organs  of  the  body  and  of  the  powers  of 
the  mind,  whether  these  states,  conditions  and  opera- 
tions are  conscious  or  unconscious. 

(b).  Keeping  in  mind  Note  {a\  it  should  be  observed 
that  the  conditions  under  which  a  habit  is  formed  con- 
stitute ever  afterwards  the  natural  stimuli  for  its  exer- 
cise. Hence  the  presence  of  one  or  more  of  these 
conditions  necessarily  tends  to  produce  such  exercise. 
This  simple  but  important  law  of  habit  is  fully  verified 
in  every  person's  experience.  For  example,  in  the  case 
of  many,  walking  is  the  condition  which  produces  un- 


52  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 


conscious  swinging  of  the  arms,  and  talking  vigorousl)^ 
unconscious  gesticulation. 

{c).  The  conditions  under  which  a  habit  can  be  ac- 
quired may  be  greatly  varied.  The  habit  of  graceful 
movements  of  the  body  may  be  acquired  in  the  gym- 
nasium, in  the  parlor,  or  under  the  guidance,  example, 
and  instruction  of  the  dancing  master.  Each  of  these 
sets  of  conditions  may  be  successfully  used  for  this 
purpose,  but  it  must  be  noted  that  the  conditions  used 
determine  very  largely  the  power  and  influence  of  the 
habit,  when  formed,  upon  the  course  of  life.  Suppose 
the  habit  to  be  formed  under  the  tuition  of  the  dancing 
master,  the  natural  stimuli,  as  pointed  out  in  Note  {b\ 
for  the  exercise  of  the  habit  will  then  be  found  in  such 
conditions  as  were  supplied  by  the  instructor  ;  hence, 
in  this  case,  the  social  and  public  dance  will  have  a 
powerful  influence  upon  the  course  of  life. 

(</).  Habits  of  the  mind,  with  reference  to  the  con- 
ditions under  which  they  are  acquired,  are  subject  to 
the  same  law  as  habits  of  the  body.  To  illustrate,  take 
the  habit  of  clear  and  accurate  reasoning.  This  may 
be  acquired  under  very  widely  different  conditions,  in- 
deed almost  opposite  conditions.  In  the  first  place,  the 
subject  matter  on  which  the  mind  may  work  in  forming 
the  habit  may  be  varied  almost  indefinitely.  Mathe- 
matics pure  or  applied,  physical  sciences,  language, 
metaphysics,  or  theology  may  each  in  turn,  or  in  com- 
bination, be  used  for  this  purpose.  In  the  second  place, 
the  teacher,  the  living  factor,  enters  as  a  prime  condi- 
tion.    He   can  vary  the  use  of  the  subject  matter  and 


THE  FORMATION  OF  HABITS.  53 

direct  and  control  the  work  of  the  pupil  at  pleasure. 
But  this  is  not  all,  he  cannot  be  honest  and  true 
to  himself,  and  do  otherwise  than  introduce  his 
own  spirit  of  doing  the  work,  as  one  of  the  most 
important  conditions,  under  which  his  pupils  form  the 
habit.  Now  suppose  the  teacher  to  be  an  atheist,  a 
deist,  an  agnostic,  or,  if  not  quite  as  marked  a  skeptic 
as  anyone  of  thesc,a  practical  unbeliever  in  God  and  His 
word,  then  what  of  the  results  ?  Such  a  teacher  may- 
form  in  his  pupils  the  habit  of  clear  and  accurate  rea- 
soning, but  this  habit  must  be  exercised,  ever  after, 
subject  to  the  law  of  the  conditions  under  which  it  was 
acquired.  The  pupil,  while  acquiring  the  habit,  having 
been  studiously  exercised  upon  truth  out  of  proper  re- 
lation to  the  fountain  and  end  of  all  truth,  will,  of 
course,  in  after-life,  find  pleasure  and  satisfaction  in 
exercising  this  habit  upon  everything  but  what  pertains 
to  God  and  spiritual  things. 

{e).  The  law  of  the  influence  and  power  of  habits 
illustrated  in  the  foregoing  notes  is  fraught  with  pecu- 
liar importance  in  reference  to  all  educational  processes. 
If  the  position  enunciated  can  be  fully  verified,  as  we 
believe  it  can,  then  our  course  of  life  depends  quite  as 
much  upon  the  way  in  which  our  education  has  been 
conducted  as  upon  the  knowledge  and  habits  we  may 
acquire.  What  we  will  do  after  our  education  is  com- 
pleted will  not  always  be  what  we  know  to  be  best  or 
right  or  what  our  habits  qualify  us  to  do,  but  what  we 
are  disposed  to  do  by  the  change  wrought  in  us  in  the 
act  of  acquiring  this  knowledge  and  these  habits. 


54  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

PURE   AND   ELEVATED   TASTES. 

34.  The  word  TASTE  is  used  m  several  senses,  which 
are  important  to  note.  The  following  should  be  carefully 
discriminated,  the  one  from  the  other.  «  ' 

{a).  The  word  denotes  the  organ  of  sense  by  which 
we  perceive  through  contact  the  savor  of  any  sub- 
stance. The  seat  of  this  organ  is  principally  in  the 
tongue. 

{b).  The  word  denotes  the  faculty  of  the  mind  by 
which  we  perceive  or  appreciate  in  objects  or  perform- 
ances of  any  kind  the  presence  or  absence  of  sym- 
metry, order,  beauty,  proportion,  adaptation  or  excel- 
lency of  whatever  sort. 

{c).  The  word  is  used  to  denote  the  feeling  of  rel- 
ish and  consequent  attraction  or  repulsion  which  ac- 
companies the  exercise,  as  defined  in  {a)  and  {b),  of 
any  organ  of  sense  or  faculty  or  receptivity  of  the 
the  mind. 

{d).  The  word  taste  is  also  used  to  denote  the  di- 
rective or  constructive  faculty  by  which  our  ideals  of 
symmetry,  order,  beauty,  etc.,  are   realized. 

35.  The  range  of  our  tastes  is  coextensive  zvith  our 
entire  being. 

(a).  Tastes  are  natural  and  acquired.  Each  human 
being  commences  life  in  the  possession  of  certain 
natural  or  inherited  tastes.  These  natural  tastes  as- 
sert themselves  from  the  dawn  of  life  onwards.  Their 
influence  even  in  infancy  is  very  marked.     The  child 


PURE  AND  ELEVATED    TASTES.  55 

of  only  a  few  years  frequently  manifests  an  extraor- 
dinary taste  for  a  certain  line  of  physical  or  mental 
activity.  Some,  for  example,  show  such  a  taste  for 
music,  others  for  drawing,  others  for  natural  history, 
others  for  investigating  the  why  and  wherefore  of 
everything,  others  for  certain  amusements,  others  for 
certain  courses  of  conduct  both  good  and  bad,  others, 
in  short,  for  the  exercise  of  some  one  or  more  of  the 
possible  natural  activities  or  receptivities  of  the  body 
and  mind.  So  much  for  some  of  the  facts  in 
regard  to  natural  tastes  ;  let  us  now  note  acquired 
tastes. 

(/»).  The  range  of  acquired  tastes  is  much  greater 
than  that  of  the  natural.  There  is  no  active  or  re- 
ceptive power  of  body  or  mind  in  connection  with 
which  a  taste  cannot  be  acquired.  The  truth  of  this 
statement  is  easily  verified  by  experiment.  Few,  if 
any,  have  failed  to  observe  how  readily  tastes  of 
every  sort  are  formed.  Even  states  of  the  body  and 
of  the  mind  which  at  first  are  very  trying  and  offen- 
sive, may,  by  persistent  effort,  become  enjoyable  and 
finally  result  in  an  overmastering  taste.  The  use  of 
tobacco  is  a  familiar  example  of  this  sort.  In  most 
cases  the  first  use  of  it  produces  very  unpleasant  ex- 
periences, yet  by  persistent  use  these  unpleasant  ex- 
periences are  entirely  overcome,  and  a  taste  is  formed 
so  strong  that  it  is  almost  unconquerable.  The  law 
illustrated  by  this  example  holds  true  of  every  active 
and  receptive  power  of  the  body  and  mind.  The 
continuous    exercise    of   such    powers,    under    proper 


56  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 


conditions,  results  invariably  in  forming    a    relish    or 
taste  for  such  exercise. 

36.  Our  tastes  have  a  poivcrful  influence  in  the 
formation  of  our  character,  and  in  determining  onr 
social  condition  and  the  manner  in  which  we  perform 
onr  life  zcork. 

(a).  Our  tastes  largely  make  and  unmake  us.  They 
are  the  secret  springs  which,  to  a  great  extent,  if  not 
entirely,  shape  both  our  private  and  public  life.  But  few, 
if  any,  are  fully  conscious  of  the  peculiar  and  subtle 
influence  of  their  tastes  in  determining  their  sphere  of 
work,  the  manner  in  which  they  perform  their  work, 
their  recreations  and  amusements,  their  social  and  re- 
ligious associations,  their  companionships,  their  reading 
and  study,  their  interest  in  the  well-being  of  others,  in 
short,  their  real  character,  and  their  place  in  the  world. 
Say  what  we  will,  our  likes  and  dislikes  have  an  untold 
influence  in  shaping  our  lives.  And  what  are  these  likes 
and  dislikes  but  the  direct  products  of  our  tastes  either 
natural  or  acquired  ? 

[d).  The  powerful  Influence  of  taste  is  felt  not  only 
among  those  who  give  themselves  up  to  degrading 
practices,  but  also  among  the  most  refined  and  educated 
classes.  It  is  the  principal  channel  through  which  ex- 
travagances and  vices  of  all  sorts  are  introduced  into 
social  life  and  even  into  literary  circles.  When  the 
tastes,  social,  literary  or  otherwise,  of  any  community 
are  vitiated,  the  flood-gates  of  destructive  influences  are 
thrown   wide    open.       It  is   said    that    "  knowledge  is 


PURE  AND  ELEVATED   TASTES.  57 

power."  This  may  be  so ;  but  knowledge  is  very 
weakness  in  the  presence  of  natural  and  acquired 
tastes.  The  power  of  knowledge,  and  even  of  reason 
and  sound  judgment,  vanishes  before  the  power  of  our 
tastes  like  the  morning  dew  before  the  rising  sun. 
Physicians,  for  example,  tell  us  of  the  destructive  con- 
sequences of  the  diet  so  commonly  served  upon  our 
tables,  and  we  may  sincerely  believe  them.  But  what 
of  that,  our  tastes  will  have  the  mastery.  They  are 
stronger  than  our  knowledge,  reason  and  judgment. 
We  will  indulge,  even  although  the  fatal  consequences 
of  a  wrecked  physical  constitution  stare  us  in  the  face, 
or  have  already  been  partially  experienced. 

if).  Taste,  as  the  faculty  by  which  beauty,  sym- 
metry, etc.,  are  perceived  and  appreciated,  is  the  key  to 
success  in  every  line  of  productive  effort.  The  me- 
chanic, the  artist,  and  the  literary  man  are  equally  de- 
pendent upon  the  use  of  this  key.  It  is,  in  the  first 
place,  a  powerful  incentive  to  all  true  efTort.  But  it 
does  not  stop  here.  It  is  the  only  force  which  shapes 
and  directs  the  exercise  of  physical  and  mental  power 
in  performing  work.  It  is  the  inspiration  which  gives 
perfection  of  finish  alike  to  the  products  of  the  arti- 
san, the  artist,  the  rhetorician,  and  the  poet.  With- 
out the  existence  and  exercise  of  a  well-trained  taste, 
there  can  be  no  master- mechanics,  artists,  or  rhetori- 
cians. It  is  taste  that  decorates  the  palace  and  trans- 
forms the  humble  home  into  a  place  of  comfort,  neatness 
and  beauty.  Taste  constitutes  the  principal  factor  in  de- 
termining our  course  of  life  and  molding  our  character. 


58  PRINCIPLED   OF  EDUCATION. 

In  short,  a  man  never  is,  and  cannot  be,  an  effective 
worker  in  any  sphere  of  hfe  for  which,  he  is  not  fitted 
by  natural  or  acquired  tastes. 

37.  It  is  the  imperative  duty  of  parents  and  teachers 
to  provide  the  right  conditio7is  for  the  formation  of 
pure  and  elevated  tastes^  in  view  of  their  powerful  in- 
fluence on  life  a?id  character. 

{a).  The  intelligent  discharge  of  this  duty  makes  it 
important  to  have  a  clear  view  of  the  primary  condi- 
tions affecting  the  formation  of  tastes,  hence  the  fol- 
lowing suggestions  on  his  subject  should  be  carefully 
noted.  Tastes,  with  reference  to  their  formation,  may 
be  classified  as  follows  : 

(i).  Tastes,  where  there  is  a  constitutional  tendency 
towards  forming  them. 

(2).  Tastes,  where  there  is  no  constitutional  tendency 
either  towards  or  against  forming  them. 

(3).  Tastes,  where  there  is  a  constitutional  antago- 
nism to  forming  them. 

Each  of  these  classes  of  tastes  must,  in  reference  to 
their  formation  and  exercise,  be  again  resolved  into  two 
classes ;  namely,  Active  Tastes  and  Passive  Tastes.  By 
active  tastes  are  meant  those  tastes  whose  exercise 
is  connected  with  an  active  state  of  the  mind  or  of 
the  body.  A  taste  for  geometrical  reasoning,  or  for 
scientific  investigation,  is  an  example  of  a  taste  for  an 
active  state  of  the  mind;  and  a  taste  for  out- door 
sports,  such  as  ball- playing,  for  an  active  state  of  the 
body.     By  passive  tastes  are  meant  those  tastes  whose 


PURE  AND  ELEVATED   TASTES,  59 

exercise  is  connected  with  a  passive  state  either  of  the 
mind  or  of  the  body.  A  taste  for  seclusion  or  soHtude 
is  an  example  of  the  former,  and  a  taste  for  the  effects 
of  a  narcotic,  such  as  tobacco,  or  of  an  alcoholic  stim- 
ulant, such  as  brandy,  is  an  example  of  the  latter 

{b).  Here  it  should  be  noted  that  the  real  object,  in 
every  instance,  which  fascinates,  attracts,  or  for  which 
a  taste  is  formed,  is  a  mental  or  subjective  state.  This 
subjective  state  has,  however,  invariably  connected 
with  it  what  may  be  called  an  external  object.  This 
external  object  is  in  a  certain  sense  the  occasion  or 
cause  of  the  subjective  state,  and  hence  it  is  usually 
improperly  regarded  as  the  real  object  of  the  taste. 
To  make  this  point  clear,  take  the  example  given 
above  of  a  taste  for  geometrical  reasoning.  Here  it 
will  be  observed  that  the  diagrams,  symbols,  difficul- 
ties, and  results  constitute  the  external  object  whose 
presence  is  necessary  to  produce  the  state  of  mind  for 
which  there  is  such  a  strong  relish,  fascination  or  taste. 
It  will  also  be  observed  that  this  external  object  is 
sought  and  its  leadings  followed,  in  the  face  of  great 
difficulties,  not  for  the  sake  simply  of  the  knowledge 
that  may  be  gained,  but  because  it  has  in  it  that 
which  produces  states  of  mind  that  are  fascinating. 
These  states  of  mind  arc  the  real  objects  of  the  relish 
or  taste  which  forces  the  person  on  in  the  study  of 
geometry,  even  in  the  face  of  great  obstacles  and 
privations.  The  principle  illustrated  by  this  example 
applies  to  passive  as  well  as  to  active  tastes.  Nar- 
cotics   and    alcoholic   stimulants  are  sought,  notwith- 


60  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

Standing  their  injurious  consequences,  simply  because 
of  the  taste  formed  for  the  mental  states  which  their 
use  necessarily  produces. 

{c).  The  external  object  and  the  subjective  or  real  ob- 
ject of  taste  sustain  to  each  other  a  relation  which  should 
be  carefully  noted.  In  passive  tastes  this  relation  is 
peculiar  and  very  marked.  Indeed,  it  is  so  constant 
that  it  properly  deserves  to  be  called  a  law.  Bearing 
in  mind,  that  a  taste  as  shown  in  {b),  is  an  attraction 
for  a  state  of  mind  which  yields  a  certain  degree  of 
pleasure  during  its  continuance,  this  law  may  be  stated 
as  follows : 

To  maintain  imiformity  in  the  degree  of  pleasure 
experienced  from  a  given  passive  state  of  mind,  there 
must  he  at  every  repetition  of  this  state  an  increase  of 
the  quantity  or  intensity  of  the  external  stimuli  which 
are  the  occasion  or  cause  of  the  given  state. 

The  workings  of  this  law,  in  passive  states  which  de- 
pend upon  stimuli  supplied  through  the  body,  may  be 
illustrated  by  the  use  of  alcoholic  and  narcotic  stimulants. 
It  takes,  for  example,  but  a  teaspoonful  of  whiskey,  at 
first,  to  produce  a  pleasurable  state  of  mind.  But 
if  the  same  degree  of  pleasure  is  to  be  produced  an 
indefinite  number  of  times,  the  quantity  of  whiskey 
taken  must  be  gradually  increased.  The  wineglass-full 
must  soon  take  the  place  of  the  teaspoonful.  And, 
finally,  if  the  effort  to  experience  the  same  degree  of 
pleasure  is  to  be  made  even  approximately  successful, 
spiced  whiskey  must  soon  take  the  place  of  the  pure 
article,  as  increase  of  quantity  gradually  ceases  to  pro- 


PURE  AND  ELEVATED    TASTES.  6 1 

duce  the  desired  effect.  The  use  of  tobacco  and  other 
narcotics  follows  the  same  law.  At  first  a  change  of 
quantity,  as  in  the  case  of  the  alcohol,  regulates  the 
degree  of  pleasure,  but  in  the  course  of  time  the 
strong  cigar  and  the  old  saturated  pipe  are  decidedly 
preferred. 

{d).  The  principle  illustrated  by  these  examples 
holds  true  also  of  passive  states  which  are  dependent 
for  their  existence  upon  stimuli  supplied  through  the 
mind.  The  printed  page  and  other  similar  sources  fur- 
nish material  which  is  taken  directly  into  the  mental 
organism,  as  readily  as  whiskey  is  taken  into  the  physi- 
cal organism.  The  mind  is  frequently  as  effectually 
injured  by  the  indulgence  of  tastes  formed  through 
stimuli  supplied  in  this  way  as  the  body  by  physical 
stimuli.  As  an  example  of  this,  the  destructive  effects 
upon  the  mind  of  a  certain  kind  of  light  reading, 
which  ministers  chiefly,  if  not  entirely,  to  the  indul- 
gence of  passive  states,  is  only  paralleled  by  the  de- 
structive effects  of  alcohol  and  narcotics  upon  the  body. 
This  is  easily  verified  by  reference  to  the  downward 
career  of  boys  and  girls  who,  perhaps  under  the  guid- 
ance of  fond  mothers,  have  formed  strong  tastes  for 
passive  states  by  the  reading  of  passional  stories  in 
Sunday-school  books.  These  stories  may,  for  a  time, 
serve  the  purpose  of  ministering  to  the  tastes  being 
formed ;  but,  as  in  the  case  of  the  alcohol,  the  pleas- 
ure they  supply  must  gradually  diminish  unless  the 
stimuli  they  contain  are  gradually  increased.  The 
Sunday-school  passional  stories  must  therefore  grad- 


62  rRINCTPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

ually  give  place  to  others  possessed  of  stronger  pas- 
sional elements.  These,  in  turn,  must  give  way  to 
stories  spiced  with  the  wild  adventures  of  reckless  lives, 
and,  finally,  these  again  to  stories  of  the  lowest  grade, 
spiced  with  the  crimes  of  even  abandoned  characters. 

{c).  The  foregoing  illustrations  are  sufficient  to  call 
attention  to  the  important  nature  of  the  relation,  in 
the  case  of  passive  states,  existing  between  the  external 
and  real  object  of  taste.  It  must,  however,  be  care- 
fully noted  that  this  relation,  while  making  possible,  as 
has  been  pointed  out,  the  most  degrading  and  de- 
structive consequences,  makes  possible,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  most  elevating  and  ennobling  products  of  the 
human  soul.  The  highest  products  of  the  artisan  and 
the  artist  are  alike  debtors  to  this  relation.  The  musi- 
cian, the  painter,  the  sculptor,  the  poet  and  the  orator 
are  ahke  inspired  by  this  relation  to  seek  constantly 
higher  and  yet  higher  expressions  of  the  external  ob- 
jects of  taste,  that  they  may  supply  the  conditions  which 
produce  the  higher  subjective  pleasures  which  their 
tastes  demand. 

(/).  It  should  here  be  carefully  noted  that  the  rela- 
tion of  the  external  object  of  taste  to  the  subjective  ob- 
ject, in  active  states  of  mind,  differs  materially  from  what 
has  been  pointed  out  regarding  passive  states.  In  active 
states  uniformity  in  the  pleasure  experienced,  at  every 
repetition  of  them,  is  maintained  without  necessarily  in- 
creasing the  quantity  or  intensity  of  the  external  stim- 
uli. Ball-playing  is  a  familiar  example  of  this.  The 
boy  here  experiences  the  same,  if  not  a  greater,  degree 


PURE  AXD  ELEVATED    TASTES.  63 


of  pleasure  as  he  resorts,  again  and  again,  to  the  same 
unchanged  round  of  external  conditions,  to  produce 
the  physical  activity  which  is  the  source  of  his  pleas- 
ure. The  principle  illustrated  by  ball-playing  holds 
equally  true  of  pleasures  experienced  from  active  states 
of  mind  which  are  dependent  for  their  existence  upon 
external  conditions  which  are  the  products  of  mind 
alone.  The  degree  of  pleasure,  therefore,  which  ac- 
companies an  active  state  of  body  or  mind,  remains 
uniformally  the  same,  or  is  increased  in  each  repetition 
of  the  state,  so  long  as  the  external  stimuli  are  un- 
changed. This  is  not  true,  as  has  been  pointed  out,  of 
passive  states.  In  passive  states  the  degree  of  pleasure 
diminishes  in  each  repetition  unless  the  quantity  or  in- 
tensity of  the  external  stimuli  is  increased.  The  gen- 
eral principle,  therefore,  which  appears  to  prevail,  in 
reference  to  the  repetition  of  active  and  passive  states 
of  body  or  of  mind,  may  be  briefly  stated  thus  : 

The  external  conditions  and  stimuli  remaining  un- 
changed, active  states  STRENGTHEN  and  passive  states 
WEAKEN  by  repetition. 

The  bearing  of  this  general  principle,  upon  the  im- 
portance of  rightly  directing  the  pupil  in  the  formation 
of  pure  and  elevated  tastes,  will  be  apparent  from  the 
illustrations  given  in  the  foregoing  notes. 

{^g).  In  reference  to  the  threefold  classification  of 
tastes  given  in  {a),  the  following  hints  should  be  care- 
fully noted  : 

First.  Acquired  tastes  are  invariably  the  products 
of  the     persistent     and  continued    exercise     of    some 


64  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

activity  or  passivity  of  the  body  or  of  the  mind.  The 
exercise  by  which  a  taste  is  formed  may  be  either 
voluntary  or  compulsory ;  hence  the  classification  into 
voluntary  and  compulsory  tastes.  Voluntary  tastes 
originate,  usually,  in  a  natural  tendency  or  in  a  desire 
to  gratify  an  ambition  of  some  sort,  or  to  be  fitted  to 
accomplish  a  certain  work  or  end.  Compulsory  tastes, 
on  the  other  hand,  originate  invariably  in  a  desire 
to  be  fitted  to  accomplish  certain  ends,  or  in  circum- 
stances over  which  the  person  forming  them  has  no 
control.  The  quality,  strength  and  permanency  of 
each  taste  formed  depend  "upon  constitutional  tend- 
encies and  the  conditions  under  which  it  has  been 
formed. 

Second.  Natural  tendencies  exist  towards  wrong 
tastes  as  well  as  right  tastes.  In  either  case,  however, 
the  law  of  formation  is  the  same.  They  are  formed, 
and  made  effective  in  shaping  conduct  and  character, 
simply  by  providing  a  constant  supply  of  the  condi- 
tions which  will  secure  the  persistent  exercise  of  the 
activity  or  passivity  ot  the  body  or  of  the  mind  with 
which  each  taste  stands  connected.  These  conditions 
are  remarkably  variable.  A  boy,  for  example,  may 
be  forced  to  form  the  impure  taste  of  chewing  tobacco 
on  account  of  his  special  companions,  social  sur- 
roundings, or  of  some  imagined  good  effect  upon  an 
ailment  with  which  he  is  much  troubled,  etc.  These 
conditions  are  largely,  if  not  entirely,  during  the  pe- 
riods of  infancy,  childhood  and  youth,  under  the 
control    of  parents    and    teachers,   hence    their  great 


PURE  AND  ELEVATED    TASTES.  65 

responsibility  for    the    future    conduct    and   character 
of  those  committed  to  their  care. 

Third.  In  the  case  of  tastes  towards  which  there  is 
no  natural  tendency,  the  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to 
create  a  tendency.  This  is  accomphshed  by  supply- 
ing, in  the  right  way,  the  conditions  that  will  necessi- 
tate the  activity  in  connection  with  which  the  taste  is 
to  be  formed.  A  taste,  for  example,  for  the  reading 
of  a  certain  class  of  books,  can  readily  be  created,  by 
conditioning  the  pupil  so  that  he  appreciates  the  ne  • 
cessity  of  such  reading,  for  the  accomplishment  of  cer- 
tain ends  which  he  regards  as  very  desirable.  At  first 
the  reading,  in  such  a  case,  is  performed  as  a  dry 
and  unavoidable  duty.  In  time,  however,  pleasure 
begins  to  accompany  the  discharge  of  the  duty,  and 
finally,  by  persistency,  a  strong  taste  for  the  exer- 
cise is  developed.  This  illustrates  the  course  that 
must  usually  be  followed  in  the  formation  of  tastes  of 
this  class.  Practically,  the  same  course  must  be  pur- 
sued in  the  formation  of  tastes  to  which  there  is  a 
natural  antagonism.  The  variation  in  the  appliances 
that  must  be  adopted  to  secure  the  formation  of 
tastes  of  this  and  the  other  class  will  be  suggested 
by  the  special  conditions  and  requirements  in  each 
case,  and  by  the  good  judgment  and  tact  of  parents 
and  teachers. 

Fourth.  As  in  the  case  of  habits  there  are  general 
tastes  which  necessitate  the  formation  of  a  certain  class 
of  special  tastes.  A  strong  taste,  for  example,  for 
social    enjoyment    is   one  of  this  kind.      Its    existence 


66  PRTNCTPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 


necessarily  leads  to  the  formation  of  special  tastes  to 
which  it  may  be  even  naturally  antagonistic,  but 
without  which  the  associations  cannot  be  formed  by 
which  it  can  be  fully  satisfied.  A  correct  and 
full  appreciation  of  this  principle  is  of  first  impor- 
tance to  parents  and  teachers.  Their's  is  the  duty  of 
directing  in  the  formation  of  general  tastes  which  will 
necessitate  special  tastes  'Ca^X.  are  pure  and  elevating,  and 
thatwill  result  in  the  formation  of  a  noble  character  and 
a  consistent  and  effective  life.  Among  these  general 
tastes  may  be  named  :  A  taste  for  genuine  work,  physi- 
cal, intellectual,  moral  and  spiritual ;  a  taste  for  reading 
standard  works,  books  which  require  earnest  and  con- 
tinued study  to  appreciate  fully  what  they  contain; 
and  a  taste  for  social  enjoyments  which  minister  to  a 
pure  and  symmetrical  development  of  mind,  heart  and 
body. 

ACQUISITION   OF  KNOWLEDGE. 

38.  The  acquisition  of  knowledge  is  not  the  principal 
end  to  be  sought  in  a  true  and  liberal  education , 

{a).  The  truth  of  this  proposition  is  perhaps  theo- 
retically accepted,  yet  in  practice  it  is  almost  universally 
denied.  This  may  be  easily  verified  by  observing  care- 
fully the  work  done  in  our  schools  and  colleges  and  the 
tests  applied  to  show  that  the  work  required  has  been 
performed.  The  ability  to  pass  examinations  for  pro- 
motion and  honors  does  not,  for  example,  depend  upon 
the   fine  character  the  pupils   have  formed   under  the 


ACQUISITION  OF  KNOWLEDGE.  6/ 

guidance  of  their  teachers  ;  nor  upon  the  acquisition  of 
habits  and  tastes  by  which  the  power  and  knowledge 
acquired  can  be  rightly  utilized  and  made  to  serve  the 
highest  good  of  the  pupils  themselves  and  of  humanity. 
These  are  not  the  qualifications  which  will  secure  the 
highest  honors  in  examinations  as  they  are  usually  con- 
ducted. Not  unfrequently  do  the  highest  honors  go 
to  members  of  classes  lacking  in  all  of  these  qualificaT 
tions,  simply  because!  -knowledge  alone  is  made  the 
basis  upon  which  such  honors  are  bestowed.  This  is  a 
great  evil  which  must  be  corrected  before  our  schools 
and  colleges  can  yield  the  best  and  highest  results. 
This  correction  cannot,  however,  be  made  so  long  as 
teachers  and  others  regard  the  acquisition  of  knowledge 
as  the  princjpal  end  of  a  liberal  education. 

{p\  ('A  large  \vaste  of  the  pupils'  time  and  energy  is 
made  in  cramming  into  the  memory  useless  details)for 
passing  equally  useless  examinations.  Teachers  know 
right  well  that  in  six  months  or  a  year,  after  these  ex- 
aminations have  been  passed,  the  details,  which  cost  such 
great  effort  to  acquire,  must  inevitably  disappear  from 
the  mind.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the  endless 
details  which  pupils  are  usually  compelled  to  acquire  in 
such  subjects  as  arithmetic,  grammar,  geography,  etc. 
The  defence  for  this  cramming  process,  in  the  face  of 
the  fact  that  these  details  pass  so  soon  from  the  mind, 
is  the  mental  discipline  which  the  work  performed 
affords.  This,  however,  is  a  great  mistake.  No  such 
mental  discipline  as  is  assumed  is  afforded.  The  act  of 
acquiring  knowledge  which  serves  this  end  must  be  real 


68  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

and  not  simply  apparent  as  in  this  case.  It  must  mean, 
not  the  cramming  of  forms  and  symbols  into  the 
memory,  but  the  placing  of  the  mind  in  actual  conscious 
relations  to  existing  entities,  realities  and  phenomena. 
It  must  mean  real  personal  experiences  of  what  is,  and 
not  merely  of  the  forms  and  symbolism,  which  serve 
only  to  call  what  is  into  consciousness.  This,  however, 
is  not  always  required  to  pass  successfully,  what  appear 
to  be,  very  formidable  examinations.  These  can  be 
passed  by  simply  fixing  in  the  memory,  for  the  time 
being,  what  some  text-book  or  lecturer  has  said  upon 
the  subject.  Questions  pertaining  to  the  most  profound 
problems  in  science,  philosophy  and  language  may  thus 
be  apparently  answered,  while  the  persons  giving  the 
answers  may  have  failed,  in  any  true  sense,  to  construe 
in  consciousness  the  realities  which  enter  into,  and  con- 
stitute the  very  essence  of  these  problems.  This  con- 
dition of  things  grows  largely  out  of  the  wrong  con- 
ception, which  commonly  prevails,  in  regard  to  the  true 
nature  of  knowledge  and  of  the  function  of  words. 

39.  A  knozvlcdgc  of  ivords  as  mere  sounds  or  ivritten 
forms  is  in  no  sense  a  knowledge  of  the  realities  zvhich 
they  are  intended  to  represent. 

{a).  Knowledge  involves  three  things :  a  being  who 
knows,  an  object  known,  and  a  consciousness  of  a 
determinate  relation  between  the  being  and  the  object. 
The  consciousness  of  this  determinate  relation  consti- 
tutes what  may  be  called  subjective  knowledge.  The 
word  knowledge,  it  must  here  be  noted,  is  also   used  in 


ACQUISITION  OF  KNOWLEDGE.  09 

an  objective  sense  to  denote  conscious  experiences 
which  have  been  associated  with  words  or  other  symbols 
by  which  they  are  recalled,  at  any  time,  into  present 
consciousness.  Knowledge  in  this  sense  can  be  pre- 
served for  future  use  in  the  form  of  books  and  other 
records.  These  books  and  records  are,  however, 
available  only  to  persons  who  have  experienced  the 
elementary  consciousnesses  represented  by  the  words. 

(/;).  It  must  here  be  observed  that  words  are,  in  a 
strict  sense,  simply  representative  in  their  use.  They 
serve  only  as  the  means  of  recalling  into  consciousness 
experiences  with  which  they  were  associated  in  a  former 
act  of  consciousness.  An  apparent  exception  to  this 
statement  must  be  carefully  noted.  The  sound  or  writ- 
ten form  which  is  called  a  word,  *in  any  language,  may 
itself  be  the  object  known  in  an  act  of  knowledge.  In 
this  case  the  sound  or  written  form  ceases  to  be  a  word, 
and  is  simply  an  object  of  knowledge,  in  the  same  sense 
as  any  other  sound  or  drawing  can  be,  or  even  a  tree 
or  article  of  furniture.  The  sole  object  of  consciousness 
here  is  the  sound  or  written  form.  No  knowledge  is 
acquired,  in  any  sense,  of  the  object  which  the  sound  or 
written  form  represents  when  used  as  a  word.  What 
is  true  of  words,  in  this  respect,  is  equally  true  of  sen- 
tences, paragraphs,  and  entire  discourses.  A  person, 
for  example,  having  no  knowledge  whatever  of  the 
representative  power  of  Latin  words,  may  fix  in  the 
memory  Latin  sentences,  paragraphs  and  discourses 
just  as  well  as  words.  The  former  may  require  a  little 
more  effort  than  the  latter,  but  it   can  bo  readily  done. 


70  PPTNCTPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

When  done,  however,  just  as  in  the  ease  of  the  single 
word,  the  only  object  of  consciousness  or  knowledge, 
before  the  mind,  is  simply  the  combinations  of  sounds 
or  characters  fixed  in  the  memory. 

{c).  It  will  further  be  observed  from  the  position 
stated  in  Notes  {a)  and  {b)  that  no  new  knowledge  can 
be  communicated  by  the  use  of  words  only,  except  in 
the  sense  of  new  combinations  of  the  knowledge  ac- 
quired from  the  objects,  entities  or  realities  of  which 
the  mind  has  already  been  conscious.  The  correctness 
of  this  view  is  evident  from  the  office  of  words.  As 
already  suggested,  whether  spoken  or  written,  they  are 
only  signs  which  serve  to  recall  into  consciousness  a 
certain  number  of  ideas,  objective  realities  or  experi- 
ences which  by  common  consent  or  otherwise  have  been 
associated  with  them,  during  the  period  in  which  they 
have  been  used.  Words,  therefore,  perform  their  legit- 
imate function  when  they  serve  simply  as  signs  to  call 
into  consciousness  otie  or  more  of  the  realities  with 
which  they  have  been  thus  associated.  A  correct  and 
complete  knowledge,  also,  of  the  meaning  of  a  word 
consists  in  a  clear  apprehension  of  all  of  the  actual 
realities  which  it  has  served  at  any  time  to  call  into 
human  consciousness.  The  study  of  the  meaning  of 
%vords,  therefore,  as  such,  properly  conducted,  consists 
in  tracing  and  experiencing  the  actual  consciousness 
of  which  they  are  now  or  have  been  at  any  time 
signs. 

40.    The  educational  process,  rightly—conducted,  will 


ACQUISITION  OF  KNOWLEDGE.  71 

invariably  give  to  the  pupil  possession  of  systematized 
knowledge. 

{a).  The  expression  systematized  kitozuledge  is  used 
in  this  proposition  in  two  senses,  which  must  be  care- 
fully noted.  It  is  used,  first,  to  denote  the  knowledge 
which  the  pupil  himself  has  traced  back  to  the  general 
truths  and  principles  on  which  it  rests,  and  which, 
after  doing  this,  he  has  arranged  in  orderly  form  and 
fixed  permanently  in  his  mind.  This  may  be  desig- 
nated scientific  hiovjledge,  whether  it  pertains  to  lan- 
guage, philosophy,  theology,  science  or  art.  The  ex- 
pression, in  the  second  place,  is  used  to  denote  the 
knowledge  of  the  productive  or  causative  relation  of 
things  which  the  pupil  discovers  in  pursuing  his  other 
work,  and  which  he  arranges  also  in  orderly  form  and 
utilizes  for  practical  ends.  This  may  be  designated 
working  knoivlcdgc.  The  method  by  which  the  re- 
sult, included  in  both  of  these  senses,  is  reached  will 
be  noted  under  the  head  of  Principles  of  Pupils 
Work. 

{b).  The  first  meaning  noted  in  {a)  applies  to  all 
of  the  pupil's  work.  Systematized  knowledge  in  this 
sense  is  always  the  product  of  well-directed  efforts 
upon  the  part  of  the  pupil.  In  order,  however,  that 
these  efforts  may  secure  the  best  results,  he  must  be 
allowed,  in  every  subject,  to  work  with  what  maybe 
called  raw  material.  It  is  in  the  act  of  analyzing  and 
reducing  to  order  and  system  this  raw  material  that 
true  mental  discipline  is  acquired.  Where  this  kind 
of  work  is  not  done  it  is  impossible  to  secure  the  high- 


72  PRTiVCirLES  OF  EDUCATION. 


est  order  of  results  in  this  respect.  In  this  work  there 
are  two  steps  which  must  be  noted.  A  subject  may 
be  carefully  analyzed  and  each  truth  of  which  it  is 
composed  discovered,  clearly  defined,  and  assigned  its 
proper  place  in  the  system  of  truths  of  which  it  is  one. 
This  is  the  first  step  towards  acquiring  systematized 
knowledge,  and  it  is  a  very  important  step,  but,  taken 
alone,  incomplete.  It  agrees,  in  a  marked  way,  with 
digestion^  or  the  first  step  in  preparing  food  for  the 
nourishment  and  development  of  the  body.  In  the 
case  of  the  body,  digestion  may  be  completed,  but 
physical  development  is  not  secured  until  the  matter 
thus  made  ready  is  distributed  and  disappears  in  the 
living  organism  through  the  action  of  assimilation. 
In  like  manner  new  truths  may  be  analyzed  and  clearly 
apprehended,  but  until,  by  a  similar  process  of  assimi- 
lation, they  are  united  to  the  body  of  truth  already  in 
possession  of  the  mind,  and  have  thus  taken  their  proper 
place  in  connection  with  the  mental  organism,  they 
fail  to  yield  to  the  pupil  their  true  and  highest  bene- 
fit. The  process  by  which  this  is  accomplished  is 
the  second  step  in  acquiring  systematized  knowledge 
covered  by  the  first  meaning  noted  in  {a). 

{c).  The  second  meaning  noted  in  {a)  has  reference 
to  a  knowledge  of  the  relations  between  means  and 
end,  cause  and  effect,  etc.,  and  the  right  use  of  these 
in  the  economy  of  life.  A  pupil  may  master  a  subject 
thoroughly  as  a  system  of  connected  truths,  and  yet 
fail  signally,  in  being  able  to  utilize,  in  a  practical  way, 
the  truths  he  has  thus  mastered.     This  failure,  how- 


PERIODS  OF  DEVELOPMENT.  73 

ever,  does  not  imply  that  the  pupil  has  not  gained  a 
clear  and  perhaps  exhaustive  knowledge  of  the  sub- 
ject, regarded  simply  as  a  system  of  related  truths. 
Instances,  in  proof  of  this,  can  be  given  without  num- 
ber. A  pupil,  for  example,  may  acquire  such  a 
knowledge  of  the  elements  of  geometry.  He  may  be 
able,  in  this  way,  to  pass  a  rigid  examination  on  the 
entire  subject,  of  the  sort  which  calls  for  nothing  be- 
yond the  truths  and  principles  involved  in  a  series  of 
logical  demonstrations,  and  yet  he  may  fail  largely,  if 
not  entirely,  in  utilizing  these  truths  and  principles,  in 
a  productive  way,  as  means  to  an  end. 

{d).  The  nature  and  extent  of  the  systematized 
knowledge  the  pupil  should  accjuire,  during  each 
period  of  the  educational  process,  will  be  outlined 
under  the  head  of  Principles  of  Pupils    Work. 


PERIODS   OF  DEVELOPMENT. 


In  the  following  outline,  of  the  three  natural  periods 
of  human  development,  attention  is  called  only  to  the 
more  important  facts  which  affect  the  course  that 
should  be  pursued  by  parents,  teachers  and  others 
intrusted  with  the  education  of  the  young.  These 
facts,  however,  if  carefully  noted,  will  greatly  assist 
in  making  clear  the  principles  and  laws  of  ph}'sical 
and  mental  development  already  outlined  and  which 
will  be  hereafter  presented. 


74  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

PERIOD   OF   INFANCY. 

This  period  extends  from  birth  to  about  the  end  of 
the  seventh  year,  and  is  marked  by  the  peculiar  con- 
ditions and  changes  set  forth  in  the  following  propo- 
sitions : — 

41.  The  infant  commences  the  solution  of  the  prob- 
lem of  life  with  a  body  and  mind  inherited  from  his 
parents. 

{a).  Each  infant  commences  life  with  a  physical 
constitution  inherited  from  his  parents.  This  con- 
stitution, and  this  alone,  must  be  the  starting-point 
of  all  physical  growth.  Hence  this  must  determine 
and  regulate,  in  the  first  place,  the  conditions,  in- 
cluding the  supply  of  food,  with  which  the  infant 
should  be  provided,  through  the  agency  of  the  parent 
and  teacher,  to  produce  a  healthy  and  vigorous  phys- 
ical organism. 

{V).  It  is  now  generally  conceded  by  the  best 
authorities  that  the  infant  inherits  from  his  parents  a 
wide  range  of  aptitudes.  At  birth  he  is  in  possession 
of  a  definite  individuality  which  distinguishes  him. 
from  all  other  children.  This  individuaHty  includes 
physical  powers  which  necessarily  develop  a  body  con- 
taining the  characteristic  features  of  one  or  both 
parents.  It  also  includes  physical  and  mental  powers 
and  aptitudes,  which  as  surely  as  in  the  case  of  the 
features  of  the  face,  when  unrestrained,  will  manifest 
mental  power  and  produce  a  course  of  action  contain- 


PERIOD   OF  INFAN^CY.  75 


ing  the    characteristic  power    and    actions   of   one  or 
both  parents. 

{c).  The  infant  commences  life  with  an  extremely 
plastic  nature,  capable  of  being  molded  and  directed 
almost  as  the  parent  or  teacher  may  choose.  This 
condition  of  things  makes  it  possible  to  remove,  largely, 
constitutional  or  inherited  deformities,  and  to  trans- 
form, if  not  to  annihilate  entirely,  powers  and  apti- 
tudes which,  if  left  unchanged,  would  develop  into  a 
defective  if  not  vicious  character. 

42.  During  the  first  four  years  of  the  period  of 
infaiicy,  the  child  is  dependent  entirely  upoti  the  parents 
for  his  objective  surroundings  and  treatnioit ;  hence 
the  following  duties  are  imperative  upon  the  par- 
ents : 

{a).  The  parent  should  furnish  proper  physical  con- 
ditions for  the  healthy  growth  of  the  child's  body. 
These  conditions  include  at  least  the  following:  A 
proper  supply,  at  right  intervals  of  time,  of  nutritious 
food;  an  abundant  supply  of  pure  air;  the  free  ap- 
plication of  pure  water  upon  every  part  of  the  body  ; 
clothing  of  the  right  kind  to  protect  every  part  of 
the  body  from  injurious  exposure,  and  which  admits 
a  free  and  healthful  exercise  of  all  its  organs;  con- 
stant and  judicious  outdoor  exercises,  in  which  the 
feet,  the  hands  and  other  organs  are  actively  used  , 
and  plenty  of  undisturbed  rest  and  sleep.  These 
conditions  should  be  carefully  supplied  throughout  the 
growing  period  of  the  child's  life.     But  the  absence  of 


76  PRTNCTPLE^  OF  EDUCATION. 

them  during  infancy,  and  especially  the  first  four  years, 
results  in  greater  evil  than  at  any  other  time. 

[V).  The  parent  should  furnish  proper  conditions  for 
mental  growth.  These  conditions  include  at  least  the 
following  :  Such  contact  with  natural  and  artificial  ob- 
jects as  will  produce  a  healthful  activity  of  all  the 
senses  ;  such  help,  in  the  form  of  example,  as  will  lead 
the  child  to  use  words  correctly  in  expressing  his  own 
actual  experiences  ;  such  exercise  and  guidance  as  will 
enable  him  to  form  the  habit  of  using  his  feet,  his  hands, 
his  mouth,  and  other  organs  of  the  body  in  a  proper  man- 
ner ;  and  such  precepts  and  examples  also  as  will  cause 
him  to  exercise  constantly  his  moral  and  spiritual 
nature. 

43.  During  the  period  of  infancy  the  peculiar  process 
of  physical  and  mental  groivtJi  that  is  going  on  demands 
special  care  in  the  treatment  of  the  child. 

{a).  About  the  end  of  the  seventh  year  the  brain 
reaches  nearly  its  full  size,  while  the  other  organs  of 
the  body  have  little  more  than  commenced  their 
growth.  The  imperfect  condition  of  the  brain  during 
this  period,  coupled  with  its  rapid  growth,  unfits  it  for 
continuous  work.  In  thi^  connection  it  should  be  care- 
fully noted  that  all  physical  as  well  as  mental  activity 
is  the  direct  product  of  brain-work.  Hence,  to  save  the 
brain  from  overwork,  the  greatest  care  must  be  taken 
to  guard  the  child  against  undue  physical  as  well  as 
mental  activity. 

{b).   Physical  activity  is  the   natural    and  necessary 


PERIOD   OF  ISfFAh'CV.  77 

product  of  the  growing  process  going  on  in  the  body, 
coupled  with  the  endless  variety  of  new  experiences 
which  contact  with  the  external  world  brings  to  the 
child.  Hence  any  course  of  treatment  of  the  child, 
either  in  or  out  of  the  school  which  prevents  un- 
duly this  activity,  subverts  a  necessary  condition 
of  growth  which  will  prove  fatal  to  the  natural 
and  successful  development  of  the  body  and  of  the 
mind.  It  is,  therefore,  clearly  the  duty  of  both  parents 
and  teachers  to  guide,  not  to  prevent,  this  activity. 

44.  The  period  of  infancy  is  marked  by  certain 
characteristics  which  should  determine  the  course  of  the 
parents  and  teacher  in  training  the  body  and  mind. 

These  characteristics  include  the  following: 

(a).  The  judgment,  reason,  will,  or  conscience  plays 
but  a  very  small  part  in  controlling  the  child's  actions. 
The  activity,  therefore,  of  the  senses,  and  consequently 
of  the  mind,  is  the  product  of  a  condition  of  the  sen- 
sory organs  which  may  properly  be  called  hunger. 
Sense-food  is  demanded,  and  must  be  had  without 
much  regard  to  kind  or  quantity.  The  child  pursues 
in  this  the  same  reckless  and  indiscriminate  course  as 
he  docs  in  supplying  the  demands  of  the  stomach. 
Hence  the  parent  and  teacher  must  guide  this  intense 
sense-hunger,  and  furnish  the  proper  conditions  and 
surroundings  for  its  healthful  exercise  and  develop- 
ment. 

{U).  Inquisitiveness  lies  at  the  root  of  all  mental 
activity.    This  powerful  inherent  tendency  of  our  nature 


78  PR fiYC ipf.es  of  educatton. 

manifests  itself  in  two  forms  :  first,  in  constantly  asking 
the  question,  What  is  it?  and  second,  in  pressing  the 
question,  Why  is  it  as  it  is?  The  first  is  a  demand 
for  knowledge  ;  the  second,  for  the  principles  and  rea- 
sons of  things.  The  child's  inquisitiveness  is  almost 
exclusively  of  the  first  form,  and  is  the  natural 
product  of  the  sense-hunger  before  mentioned.  Unless 
this  is  blunted  by  unnatural  treatment,  he  will  insist 
upon  knowing  everything  just  as  it  is.  He  will  con- 
tinue to  look  at,  to  taste,  to  smell,  to  handle  the  objects 
that  come  within  his  reach,  until  they  cease  to  yield 
him  any  more  new  sense-food.  Then  he  will  show  the 
same  restlessness  and  uneasiness  which  accompany 
the  lack  of  a  proper  supply  of  food  for  the  stomach. 

{c).  The  child's  actions  are  aimless  in  the  sense  of 
not  containing  any  plot  or  plan  which  reaches  beyond 
what  is  now  and  here.  In  short,  they  are  aimless  in 
the  singleness  of  their  aim.  The  child  literally  com- 
plies with  the  precept,  "  Take  no  thought  for  the  mor- 
row," hence  the  singleness  and  intensity  of  his  activi- 
ties. He  loses  himself  entirely  in  what  is  now  and 
here.  If,  for  example,  he  is  crying,  he  is  all  crying; 
if  playing,  he  is  all  playing.  This  characteristic  of 
child-nature,  properly  utilized  by  parents  and  teachers, 
acts  as  one  of  the  most  powerful  elements  in  forming 
a  simple,  pure  and  strong  character. 

{d).  Simple  credulity  is  a  natural  condition  of  infant 
life.  Everything  is  to  the  child  what  it  appears  to  be. 
He  is  not  disposed  to  doubt  his  senses,  nor  does  he 
take  any  account  of  the  endless  variety  of  conditions 


PERIOD   OF  IXFAXCY.  79 

that  may  give  a  false  coloring  to  what  is  present  to  the 
sense  or  mind.  Also,  in  making  his  own  experience 
the  measure  by  which  he  judges  others,  he  necessarily 
takes  for  granted  that  the  statements  and  reports  of  his 
seniors,  of  experiences  that  lie  beyond  his,  are  of  the  same 
truthful  character  as  his  own.  Hence  he  accepts  of  them 
without  any  questioning,  until,  as  he  grows  older,  he 
establishes  by  unpleasant  experiences  their  untruthful- 
ness. When  he  reaches  this  conclusion,  a  new  condi- 
tion of  things  breaks  in  upon  him,  and  he  gradually 
commences  to  doubt  almost  everything  that  has  not 
been  tested  by  himself  This  process  has  its  beginning 
in  the  period  of  infancy,  is  intensified  in  childhood,  and 
reaches  its  worst  form  in  youth.  In  view  of  the  natural 
consequences  of  the  abuse  of  this  characteristic  of 
infant- nature,  it  should  be  a  fixed  principle  of  both 
parents  and  teachers  never  under  an}-  circumstances  to 
deceive  a  child. 

(<;•).  During  this  period  each  organ  of  the  body  is  in 
the  most  plastic  state.  Coupled  with  this,  there  is  in- 
tense physical  activity  and  absolute  singleness  of  aim. 
All  the  physical  and  mental  power  of  the  child  is 
present  in  every  separate  course  of  action  in  which  he 
engages.  Hence  the  readiness  with  which  his  activities 
can  be  transformed  into  habits.  The  importance  of 
this  characteristic  of  infant-nature  cannot  be  over- 
estimated. It  is  capable  of  being  used  for  evil  as  well 
as  for  good.  This  is  illustrated  in  the  formation  of 
what  are  known  as  loafing  habits,  including  the  awk- 
ward use  of  feet  and  hands  and  other  organs  of  the 


80  PKTiVCTPLES  OF  EDUCATION: 


body.  But  it  is  especially  illustrated  in  the  formation 
of  habits  of  disobedience  to  parents  and  others  having 
rightful  authority,  and  of  disrespect  of  law  and  of  the 
just  claims  of  superiors  in  age  and  in  experience.  Habits 
of  this  kind  are  largely  formed  during  the  period  of 
infancy.  Hence  at  this  time  neither  parent  nor  teacher 
should  fail  to  give  proper  attention  to  this  element  of 
the  child's  nature. 


PERIOD  OF  CHILDHOOD. 


This  period  commences  about  the  seventh  year  of 
the  child's  life,  and  ends  between  the  twelfth  and 
sixteenth.  Surroundings,  climate,  health,  and  other 
causes  produce  an  unnaturally  rapid  development  of  the 
body  and  mind,  and  hence  children  pass  from  the  sec- 
ond to  the  third  period  at  different  times  between  the 
ages  named.  An  early  change  from  the  second  to  the 
third  period  is  not  desirable.  The  longer  the  spirit 
and  simplicity  of  childhood  continues,  unimpaired  by  a 
vigorous  activity  of  body  and  mind,  the  greater  the 
promise  of  a  strong  and  vigorous  manhood  and  wo- 
manhood. 

The  following  propositions  suggest  questions  de- 
manding the  attention  of  parents  and  teachers  during 
this  period. 

45.  The  brain,  sensory  organs,  and  mechanical  or- 
gans have  reached  a  degree  of  mattirity  ivhich  de- 
mands a  wider  range  of  sports  or  physical  exercises 
than  during  infancy. 


PERIOD  OF  CHILDHOOD.  8 1 

{a).  An  increase  of  physical  energy  is  a  necessary 
product  of  the  process  of  healthful  growth.  This  en- 
ergy during  childhood  increases  more  rapidly  than  it 
can  be  used  in  the  ordinary  activity  of  the  body,  hence 
the  demand  for  an  outlet.  Play  or  sport  is  the  only 
natural  outlet.  Work  can  in  no  way  be  made  a 
substitute.  This  is  evident  from  the  very  nature  of 
play  and  work.  In  play  the  primary  end  sought  is 
the  pleasure  or  enjoyment  present  in  the  very  acts 
performed,  while  in  work  the  primary  end  sought  is 
always  a  useful  result  outside  of  the  acts  performed. 
In  work  the  present  experience  may  be  pleasant  or 
painful.  The  activity  is  continued,  not  as  in  play  be- 
cause of  present  physical  enjoyment,  but  because  of 
the  influence  of  some  outside  power,  and  hence  is  not 
the  natural  demand  of  the  growing  organism.  Then, 
again,  surplus  physical  energy  is  generated  in  every 
organ  of  the  body;  but  work,  from  the  very  nature  of 
the  case,  affords  an  outlet  only  for  the  energy  generated 
in  certain  mechanical  organs,  such  as  the  foot,  the 
hand,  etc.,  and  hence  in  the  formative  condition  of  the 
body  tends,  unless  carefully  guarded,  to  destroy  the 
symmetrical  development  of  its  organs. 

{b).  The  natural  discharge  of  surplus  physical  energy 
is  always  accompanied  by  present  pleasurable  sensa- 
tions. This  discharge  takes  place  only  through  the 
exercise  of  the  organs  in  which  the  energy  is  gen- 
erated ;  hence  the  necessity  of  the  endless  variety  of 
activity  characteristic  of  the  child.  He  runs,  walks, 
jumps,  rolls,  tumbles,  twists  the  body  into  all  possible 


82  PKINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

shapes,  talks,  laughs,  shouts,  and  makes  all  kinds  of 
noises ;  in  short,  if  left  to  himself  and  surrounded  by- 
proper  conditions,  he  discharges  surplus  physical  en- 
ergy at  every  pore  of  the  body.  This  is  the  neces- 
sary accompaniment  of  a  healthful  physical  growth. 
Hence,  any  system  of  education,  which  does  not  make 
proper  provision  for  the  natural  discharge  of  physical 
energy,  can  never  build  up  strong  and  symmetrical 
men  and  women. 

{c).  The  nature  and  character  of  sports  change  with 
the  growth  of  the  body  and  mind.  During  infancy 
and  a  large  portion  of  childhood,  the  pleasurable  sen- 
sations accompanying  the  discharge  of  physical  energy 
is  almost  the  child's  sole  reason  for  engaging  in  sports. 
Hence  the  same  sport  or  the  same  round  of  move- 
ments continues  to  be  repeated  consecutively,  until, 
through  the  exhaustion  of  surplus  energy,  this  pleas- 
urable sensation  ceases  to  be  produced.  It  only  re- 
quires, however,  a  short  time  to  restore  this  exhausted 
energy  ;  hence  the  child  returns  again  to  the  same 
sport  with  as  much  zest  as  before.  The  fact  that  the 
physical  energy  generated  in  the  various  organs  of  the 
child's  body  is  quickly  exhausted  and  as  quickly  re- 
stored, is  the  reason  of  the  peculiar  delight  which  he 
takes  in  a  rapid  succession  of  different  sports  which 
call  into  exercise  constantly  new  combinations  of  his 
organs.  In  this  connection  it  should  be  observed  that, 
as  the  mental  powers  of  the  child  commence  to  con- 
trol his  action — as  he  commences  to  feel  an  ambition 
to  excel — his  sports  become  more  complex  and  con- 


PERIOD  OF  CHILDHOOD.  83 

tinuous,  and  less  of  the  nature  of  pure,  spontaneous, 
physical  exercise,  and  less  productive  of  real  good 
to  the  child.  Indeed,  purely  ambitious  considerations 
may  control  to  such  an  extent  as  to  convert  what 
may  be  called  a  sport  into  an  exhaustive  and  injurious 
work. 

{d).  No  physical  exercises  are  productive  of  such 
healthful  results  as  those  which  are  spontaneous  and 
free  from  all  constraint.  Hence,  plays  and  sports 
conducted  in  a  well-regulated  playground  rank  first 
among  physical  exercises.  "  Order  in  confusion,"  and 
proper  regard  to  the  rights  of  the  weak  and  the 
strong,  should  be  the  only  requirements  of  such  a 
playground.  No  scheme  of  regulating  the  sports 
should  be  adopted  that  will  deprive  the  children  of 
the  delightful  experiences  consequent  only  upon  a  free 
and  spontaneous  activity  of  the  organs  of  the  body. 
It  is  very  clear,  however,  that  every  school  is  not, 
and  perhaps  cannot  be,  provided  with  proper  accom- 
modations for  outdoor  sports ;  hence  resort  must  be 
had  to  calisthenic  exercises  as  the  next  best  thing  that 
can  be  done.  For  disciplinary  purposes,  and  to  pro- 
mote graceful  movements  of  the  body  and  the  develop- 
ment of  special  organs,  calisthenic  exercises  have  a 
decided  advantage  over  the  other.  Yet  they  fail  to  in- 
fuse into  the  body  and  mind  that  vitalizing  and  health- 
ful power  which  results  from  free  exercise  in  the  open 
air ;  hence  calisthenics  should  always  have,  where  the 
other  is  possible,  the  second  place  in  the  physical 
exercises  connected  with  a  school. 


84  rKTNCTPLES   OF  EDUCATION. 

46.  The  child,  during  this  period,  associates  indis- 
criminately with  other  children  of  his  own  age,  and 
is  easily  affected  by  their  language,  actions  and  habits. 

{a).  The  distinction  of  sex  has  but  sHght  influence 
in  determining  the  child's  associates  during  this  period. 
The  same  natural  impulses  regulate  the  general  con- 
duct of  both  boys  and  girls.  The  natural  promptings 
and  attractions  of  their  physical  natures  are  the  same. 
Hence  they  enjoy,  unless  warped  by  conditions  im- 
posed by  the  parents,  the  same  plays  and  sports. 
These  plays  and  sports  bring  to  both  the  same  intense 
pleasure.  This  state  of  things  should  not  be  disturbed 
by  artificial  requirements  imposed  in  obedience  to  the 
supposed  demands  of  society.  In  this  period  of  child- 
Hfe,  boys  and  girls  should  be  allowed  the  same  free- 
dom of  outdoor  sports,  and  should,  under  proper  re- 
strictions, mingle  freely  with  each  other. 

{b).  If  left  to  his  own  natural  impulses,  the  influence 
of  occupation,  position,  or  rank  in  life,  and  so  on,  is 
almost  entirely  disregarded  by  the  child  in  choosing 
his  associates.  Pleasure  or  enjoyment  is  the  chief 
thing  sought  in  his  companions,  and  this  pleasure 
comes  to  him  during  this  period  chiefly  through  the 
exercise  of  his  physical  organs.  Hence  he  selects  as 
his  associates,  without  much  regard  to  anything  else, 
those  who  can  minister  most  freely  to  this  exercise. 
If  he  enjoys  special  field  sports,  his  companions  will 
be  such  as  can  contribute  most  to  this  enjoyment. 
It  matters  little  what  they  are  socially  or  morally ; 
the  boys  from  the  lowest  stratum  of  society  are  valued 


PERIOD  OF  CHILDHOOD.  85 

as  companions  in  those  field  sports  just  as  much  as 
those  from  a  higher  plane.  This  natural  forgetfulness 
of  all  social  distinctions  accompanied  with  the  strong 
tendency  to  form  habits,  is  one  of  the  most  powerful 
elements  for  good  or  evil  in  child-nature.  Properly 
directed,  it  will  build  up  a  broad  and  noble  manhood, 
which  will  always  exercise  sympathy  for  all  classes  and 
conditions  of  men.  But  if  left  unguided,  it  usually, 
as  society  is  now  constituted,  leads  the  child  into  wrong 
courses  of  action,  and  fixes  upon  him  habits  which 
affect  injuriously  his  whole  life.  Hence  the  impor- 
tance upon  the  part  of  parents  and  teachers  of  a  care- 
ful study  of  this  phase  of  child-life.  Hence,  also,  the 
importance  of  the  most  earnest  effort  to  surround  the 
child  with  such  conditions  as  will  rightly  guide  him 
in  his  necessary  associations  with  other  children,  and 
in  the  choice  of  his  companions. 

47,  During  this  period  the  activity  of  the  senses 
continues,  and  is  accompanied  by  the  development  of 
reflection,  and  hence  of  the  simplest  form  of  reasoning 
and  of  scare Ji  for  the  causes  of  material  and  immaterial 
phenomena. 

{a).  The  child  touches,  tastes,  smells  and  handles 
everything  that  comes  within  his  reach,  and  he  cannot 
do  otherwise  if  he  follows  the  impulses  of  his  nature. 
These  natural  impulses  should  not  be  put  under  chains. 
The  child  should  be  left  free,  and  indeed  encouraged 
to  apply  all  his  senses  in  examining  into  the  nature  of 
his  surroundings.     To  do  otherwise  is  to  crush  out  of 


S6  PRINCTPLES  OF  'EDUCATION. 

him  what  God  designed  as  one  of  the  most  important 
elements  of  a  strong  intellectual  and  moral  nature. 
There  is  but  one  course  in  this  matter.  The  senses 
should  be  gratified,  and  their  exercises  guided  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  form  the  power  and  habit  of  making 
accurate  observations.  This  cannot  be  done  either  by 
leaving  the  child  free  to  use  all  his  senses  indiscriminate- 
ly as  chance  may  direct,  or  by  cramping  him  at  once 
into  a  scientific  mold  where  the  most  orderly  use  is 
made  of  each  sense.  The  power  and  habit  of  using 
the  senses  accurately  is  a  growth — is  the  product  of  a 
gradual  and  natural  transformation  of  the  inherent 
sense-hunger  in  a  child — is  a  necessary  working  force. 
The  simple  duty,  then,  of  both  parents  and  teachers,  is 
to  supply  the  necessary  conditions  to  produce  this 
transformation. 

ip).  Reasoning,  reflection  and  search  for  the  causes 
of  things,  in  their  simplest  forms,  commence  with  the 
very  first  dawn  of  intelligence  ;  but  during  infancy  the 
imperfect  condition  of  the  brain  and  nervous  system, 
and  the  strong  demand  made  upon  this  imperfect 
organism  by  the  process  of  growth,  and  by  the  end- 
less variety  of  new  objects  presented  to  the  senses, 
excludes  the  possibility  of  reasoning  and  reflection 
proper.  During  infancy,  however,  the  child  usually 
exhausts  the  enjoyment  afforded  by  simple  sports 
and  by  the  simple  use  of  his  senses  upon  surround- 
ing objects.  Hence,  in  order  to  have  new  enjoy- 
ments, he  is  naturally  compelled  to  form  new  com- 
binations in   his  sports,  and  to  seek    new    objects  on 


PERIOD  OF  CHILDHOOD.  87 

which  to  exercise  his  senses.  This  condition  of  things, 
therefore,  makes  a  demand  for  a  higher  order  of 
reasoning  and  reflection  than  was  necessary  during 
infancy.  In  this  connection  it  should  be  carefully 
noted  that  the  process  of  reasoning  and  reflection 
.  belonging  to  childhood  is  of  a  concrete  nature, 
and  pertains  to  such  subjects  and  principles  as  can  be 
illustrated  or  demonstrated  objectively.  Hence  the 
course  of  study  during  childhood  should  be  confined 
to  what  is  concrete  and  experimental. 

48.  The  child  lives  in  the  present ;  his  actions  are 
almost  entirely  the  products  of  present  attractions  and 
repulsions,  of  present  simple  convictions  of  right  and 
wrong,  or  of  habits  already  formed. 

(a).  The  attractions  and  repulsions  which  control 
the  child's  actions  during  infancy  and  the  earlier  part 
of  childhood  pertain  largely  to  the  senses.  What 
gives  sentient  pleasure  or  pain  usually  decides  the 
course  of  action.  Hence,  the  system  of  rewards  and 
punishments  so  commonly  adopted  in  controlling  the 
child's  will.  Intellectual  attractions  and  repulsions 
gradually  rise  into  prominence.  As  the  child  enters 
the  period  of  youth,  they  have  a  strong  influence  upon 
his  actions.  His  volitions  gradually  become  more  the 
products  of  reason  and  forethought.  His  convictions 
of  right  and  wrong,  however,  continue  to  be  largely 
the  products  of  simple  principles,  wrought  into  his 
mind  by  his  parents  and  teachers  during  infancy  and 
childhood.     When  a  demand  for  action  is  made  upon 


88  PRINCIPLES   OF  EDUCATION. 

him,  these  principles  rise  into  consciousness  and    de- 
termine the  course  to  be  pursued. 

(/;).  All  motives  which  influence  the  will  are  states 
of  consciousness — such  as  emotions,  feelings  and  per- 
ceptions of  utility,  propriety,  right  and  wrong,  and  so 
on — which  are  present  at  the  time  the  will  is  to  be. 
exercised.  These  states  of  consciousness  may  be  either 
the  products  of  our  immediate  present  surroundings 
and  hence  transitory,  or  they  may  be  the  products 
of  past  experiences,  principles  or  habits,  which  have 
been  wrought  into  our  nature  and  remain  permanently 
with  us,  and  which  are  called  into  consciousness  by 
present  surroundings.  In  the  former  case,  the  course 
of  conduct  is  literally  the  creature  of  present  sur- 
roundings ;  in  the  latter,  however,  present  surround- 
ings have  but  little  to  do  in  determining  the  course 
of  conduct. 

49.  The  child's  course  of  conduct  ifi  after-life,  his 
character  and  moral  strength,  depend  very  largely  upon 
the  vietJiod  of  control  adopted  by  his  parents  and  teach- 
ers during  infancy  and  childhood. 

{a).  This  proposition  necessarily  follows  from  the 
position  stated  in  48  {b).  The  boy  who  has  been 
controlled  by  present  enjoyments,  supplied  by  an  in- 
dulgent parent  or  teacher,  becomes  strangely  changed 
in  his  conduct  when  he  passes  into  less  favorable  sur- 
roundings. The  amiable  and  well-behaved  boy  in  the 
mother's  sitting-room  or  in  the  teacher's  class-room, 
becomes   all   at   once   unreliable   and   vicious.      This  is 


PERIOD  OF  YOUTH.  .S9 

almost  the  invariable  product  of  that  method  of  gov- 
erning children  which  controls  them  by  simply  sup- 
plying present  gratification. 

{b).  The  position  stated  in  48  {b)  points  to  an- 
other method  of  control.  Present  enjoyment  should 
not  be  ignored,  yet  it  should  be  made  simply  a  means 
to  an  end.  V/hile  ministering  to  the  child's  enjoy- 
ment, it  is  the  imperative  duty  of  both  parent  and 
teacher  to  see  that  true  principles  of  action  and  cor- 
rect habits  are  wrought  into  his  being.  These  he 
will  carry  with  him  as  a  permanent  possession,  and 
they  will  determine  his  course  of  conduct  when  he 
ceases  to  be  under  the  influence  of  pleasant  surround- 
ings supplied  by  the  kind  hand  of  another. 

PERIOD    OF    YOUTH. 

This  period  commences  between  the  ages  of  twelve 
and  sixteen,  and  ends  between  the  ages  of  twenty 
and  twenty-five.  The  chief  points  which  demand  the 
special  attention  of  parents  and  teachers  are  set  forth 
in  the  foUowii'ig  propositions : 

50.  TJic  body  at  the  beginning  of  this  period  is  in  a 
transition  state,  and  demands  special  attention  in  order 
to  preve)!^  mistakes  whieh  may  result  in  permanent 
injury. 

{a).  New  experiences  growing  out  of  physical 
changes  make  their  appearance  at  the  beginning  of 
this  period.     These  experiences  in  their  nature  are  ex- 


90  PRINCfPLES   OF  ICDUCAT/O.V. 

citing  and  taxing  upon  the  nervous  energies.  They 
are  also  accompanied  by  a  strong  natural  tendency  to 
sacrifice  largely  the  other  vital  interests  of  the  body 
in  order  that  they  may  be  enjoyed.  Hence,  at  this 
particular  stage  of  development,  there  is  great  danger 
of  fatal  injury  to  the  body  growing  out  of  the  viola- 
tion of  simple  physiological  laws. 

{b).  A  large  share  of  the  ruinous  practices  which 
prevail  during  this  period  is  the  result  of  ignorance  of 
the  fatal  consequences  accompanying  these  practices 
and  of  the  proper  treatment  of  the  body.  It  is, 
therefore,  the  imperative  duty  of  parents,  and  in  case 
they  fail  to  do  the  work,  then  of  teachers,  to  give,  at 
the  proper  time  and  under  proper  restrictions,  such  in- 
structions as  will  make  plain  the  evils  to  be  avoided, 
and  as  will  impart  strength  and  determination  to  avoid 
them.  Recourse  in  this  matter  should  be  had  to  the 
instructions  given  upon  the  subject  in  standard  authori- 
ties on  physiology  and  hygiene. 

{c).  All  concede  that  the  condition  of  the  body  affects 
directly  the  experiences  of  the  mind.  When  a  man  is 
"blue,"  it  is  usually  safe  to  conclude  that  his  digestive 
organs  are  somewhat  out  of  order.  It  is  no  more  true 
that  the  body  affects  the  mind  than  that  the  conditions 
and  states  of  the  mind  affect  the  body.  The  feelings 
and  passions  react  upon  the  body  and  induce  courses 
of  conduct  which  bring  upon  it  disease  and  ruin. 
Here  it  should  be  carefully  noted  that  physical  debility 
or  disease  as  a  reaction  from  the  mind  is  the  result  of 
passive,  not  active,  states  of  mind — is  the  result  of  an 


PERIOD  OF  YOUTH.  9 1 


over-exercisc  of  the  feelings,  the  emotions,  the  passions, 
and  not  of  the  intellect,  the  reason,  the  judgment.  By 
keeping  the  feelings  and  the  emotions  nearly  inactive, 
a  boy  or  girl  between  the  ages  of  fifteen  and  twenty- 
five  can  perform,  without  the  slightest  injury  to  the 
body,  far  more  of  what  may  be  called  purely  intellectual 
work  than  is  now  usually  performed  in  any  of  our 
schools. 

51.  During  this  period  all  the  products  of  the  in- 
tellectual nature,  including  the  reasoning  power,  judg- 
ment, etc.,  carry  with  them  the  authority  of  in- 
tuitions. 

{(x).  Sense-products  absorb  largely  the  attention 
during  infancy  and  childhood.  Accompanying  this 
condition  of  things,  a  gradual  transformation  is  going 
on.  The  mind  is  becoming  more  and  more  interested 
in  simple  inferences  that  follow  readily  from  the  sense- 
perceptions  acquired.  As  a  result,  at  the  beginning 
of  the  third  period  simple  processes  of  reasoning,  such 
as  each  mind  is  prepared  for,  become  more  intensely 
absorbing  than  even  sense-products.  Facts  already 
acquired  are  now  assuming  a  new  interest,  and  arc 
again  looked  over  and  compared,  and  conclusions 
reached  which  were  no  part  of  the  original  percep- 
tions. These  conclusions  are  simple  and  direct,  and 
hence  are  necessarily  as  real  to  the  mind  as  the  proposi- 
tions themselves.  Consequently  they  carry  with  them 
the  same  positive  authority  as  the  perceptions. 

(/').  As  a   necessary  consequence  of  the  traniiforma- 


92  rRINCTTLES   OF  EDUCATION. 

tion  named  in  {a),  a  marked  characteristic  of  youth  i  . 
developed  ;  namely,  the  habit  of  drawing  conclusions 
from  insufficient  premises.  This  habit  is  the  natural 
result  of  the  direct  method  of  making  inferences  prac- 
tised in  infancy  and  childhood.  So  strong  does  it  be- 
come before  commencing  a  course  of  training  where 
rigid  demonstrations  are  required,  that  the  mind  refuses 
to  recognize  as  necessary  the  series  of  steps  on  which  a 
conclusion  is  based.  The  conclusion  is  perceived,  and 
in  a  certain  sense  as  a  conclusion,  without  taking  into 
account  in  logical  order  the  premises  on  which  it  rests. 
This  condition  of  things  is  the  reason  why  so  many 
bright  children,  possessed  of  marked  perceptive  powers, 
strongly  dislike  the  demonstrative  sciences.  If,  how- 
ever, such  children  are  properly  guided  by  their 
teachers,  they  will  very  soon  become  intensely  inter- 
ested in  the  examination  of  data  and  premises  for  the 
purpose  of  determining  whether  the  conclusions  drawn 
are  legitimate  and  in  accordance  with  the  truth  of 
things. 

{f).  Other  very  important  characteristics  of  youth 
have  their  origin  in  the  condition  of  things  stated  in 
the  above  proposition.  For  example,  boys  and  girls 
during  this  period  are  naturally  skeptical,  conceited,  and 
positive  even  to  obstinacy.  They  think  they  know 
things  just  as  they  are,  and  that  there  is  little  to  be 
known  outside  of  what  they  have  examined.  This  is 
a  legitimate  consequence  of  the  peculiarly  new  and 
authoritative  nature  of  their  present  intellectual  prod- 
ucts.     The  child's  perceptions  of  the    objective  world 


PERIOD  OF  YOUTH.  93 

are  intensely  real  to  him.  He  entertains  no  doubts  re- 
garding them.  He  looks  with  astonishment  at  any  one 
who  would  call  in  question  these  perceptions.  In  this 
peculiar  sense  the  child  may  be  said  to  be  very  skeptical. 
In  this  third  period  a  similar  condition  of  things  prevails 
regarding  the  perceptions  of  the  reasoning  powers. 
These  perceptions  are  also  new  and  authoritative,  and 
contain  to  the  young  mind  just  about  the  whole  truth. 
Hence,  as  in  the  case  of  the  child,  grave  doubts,  which 
assume  frequently  the  form  of  conceit  and  obstinacy, 
are  entertained  of  anything  that  seems  to  contradict 
this  authoritative  experience.  Young  men  and  young 
women  in  this  good  sense  are  skeptical,  conceited,  and 
even  obstinate  ;  but  this  skepticism,  conceit,  and  ob- 
stinacy, properly  directed  and  controlled  by  competent 
teachers,  become  most  desirable  qualities  in  building  a 
strong  and  vigorous  manhood  and  womanhood. 

52.  The  social  nature  at  the  beginning  of  tJiis 
period  coinnienccs  to  assert  control,  and  hence  demands 
the  special  attention  of  parents  and  teachers. 

{a).  During  infancy  and  childhood  the  element  of 
sex  has  played  but  a  small  part  in  the  social  inter- 
course of  boys  and  girls.  They  have  thus  far  asso- 
ciated together  in  sports  and  common  enjoyments. 
They  have  formed  attachments  growing  out  of  these 
associations.  Now,  however,  another  and  more  subtle 
element  than  sports  and  common  enjoyments  de- 
termines the  attachments  formed.  Now  to  the  boy  the 
society  of  girls  is  becoming  more  attractive  than  that 


94  PRINCTI'LES  OF  EDUCATION, 

of  boys,  and  to  the  girl  the  society  of  boys  than  that 
of  girls.  This  condition  of  things  is  in  the  order  of 
nature.  The  evident  duty,  therefore,  of  parents  and 
teachers  is  to  direct  and  control,  not  to  crush,  this  in- 
herent and  refining  natural  tendency  of  our  being. 

{b).  The  emotional  nature  and  the  imagination  play 
a  very  important  part  in  shaping  the  social  relations 
and  the  general  course  of  conduct  of  this  period.  It 
is  a  common  saying — "  boys  and  girls  are  impulsive." 
We  mean  by  this  that  they  act  from  their  feelings 
rather  than  from  the  dictates  of  their  reason  and  judg- 
ment. Tn  this  connection  it  should  be  carefully  noted 
that  the  emotional  nature  is  exceedingly  inventive,  and 
that  this  inventive  power  is  in  some  degree  universal. 
There  are  comparatively  few,  who,  in  matters  requiring 
the  exercise  of  pure  intellect,  are  inventive  ;  yet  every 
one,  in  matters  pertaining  to  the  feelings,  possesses  this 
power.  This  is  particularly  true  between  the  ages  of 
fifteen  and  twenty-five.  Hence  the  endless  variety  of 
devices  by  which  young  people  are  able  to  carry  out 
the  demands  of  the  feelings  and  of  the  heart ;  hence, 
also,  the  importance  of  supplying  the  proper  social 
conditions  for  the  exercise  and  training  of  this  power. 

{c).  An  over-exercise  of  the  social  nature,  which 
draws  so  largely  upon  the  feelings  or  emotions,  is  pro- 
ductive of  great  injury  both  to  the  body  and  to  the 
mind.  The  effect  of  such  a  course  upon  the  body  has 
already  been  pointed  out  in  50  {c).  A  similar  effect  is 
produced  upon  the  mind  by  such  a  course.  Rugged 
and  clear  thinking,  even  in  the  case  of  what  may  be 


PERIOD  OF  YOU  TIL  95 

called  strong  and  matured  minds,  soon  becomes  impos- 
sible if  the  emotional  nature  is  overtaxed.  The  intel- 
lectual vigor  of  boys  and  girls  is  not  unfrcquently 
undermined  by  indulgences  in  social  life  and  by  the 
reading  of  sensational  books,  both  of  which  make  a 
strong  draft  upon  the  feelings.  Under  such  conditions 
they  soon  reach  a  point  where  they  spend  a  large 
share  of  their  time  in  a  dreamy  passive  state.  They 
lose  all  desire  for  positive,  active,  vigorous  mental 
work.  This  is  only  one  of  the  many  evil  results  of 
over-indulgence  of  the  social  nature,  so  commonly 
permitted  and  even  encouraged  by  parents  of  the 
present  time.  There  is  a  golden  mean  in  this  matter, 
and  parents  and  teachers  should  not  fail  to  adopt  it,  as 
either  extreme  is  productive  of  great  injury. 

53.  The  development  and  training  of  the  moTal  na- 
ture should  receive  the  first  attention  of  parents  attd 
teachers  during  each  of  these  three  periods.  Under 
proper  guidance  all  the  activities  of  the  intellectnal 
nature  may  gradually  be  sidwrdinated,  as  they  ought  to 
be,  to  the  control  of  the  conscience  and  loill. 

{a).  The  conscience  is  as  susceptible  of  education  as 
any  other  power  of  the  mind.  Its  development  runs 
parallel  with  the  development  of  the  intellectual  powers. 
It  manifests  itself  in  infancy  in  enforcing  obedience  to 
the  simple  laws  of  nature  learned  throu«jh  experience. 
The  ought  to  be  and  ought  not  to  be  enters  very 
early  into  the  child's  consciousness.  Indeed,  it  accom- 
panies every  experience  he  passes   through   where  lie 


g6  PRTNCTPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

knows  that  one  of  two  courses  would  avoid  pain  or 
suffering.  A  mistake  is  very  commonly  made  regard- 
ing the  province  of  the  conscience.  It  is  practically 
restricted  by  many  in  its  operations  to  what  is  known 
as  the  spiritual  part  of  our  being.  Conscience  to  such 
has  nothing  to  do  with  the  ordinary  exercise  of  the 
functions  of  the  body.  This  is  a  great  mistake,  and 
leads  to  fatal  results  in  the  training  of  the  infant  and 
child.  The  decisions  of  the  conscience  are  coexten- 
sive with  the  work  of  our  entire  being.  They  alone 
settle  authoritatively  zvheu,  zvJierc,  Jlow  and  for  what 
purpose  each  function  of  the  body  and  each  power  of 
the  mind  ought  to  be  exercised. 

(/;).  The  development  and  training  of  the  conscience 
is  usually  sadly  neglected.  From  infancy  up  to  man- 
hood, in  all  matters  pertaining  to  the  intellect,  every 
encouragement  is  given  to  independent  action,  and 
the  results  and  decisions  reached  are  respected.  It  is 
assumed  in  this  case  that  there  is  an  inherent  power 
in  the  child  to  see  things  as  they  are  that  can  be 
trusted.  And  because  of  this  assumption,  such  work 
and  exercises  are  intrusted  to  the  child  as  develop 
and  train  his  intellectual  powers  in  a  proper  manner. 
The  opposite  of  this  course  is  pursued  with  the  con- 
science. From  infancy  up,  the  child  is  treated  as  if 
he  had  no  spiritual  eye,  by  which  to  see  the  ought 
to  be  and  the  ought  not  to  be.  His  parents  and  his 
teacher's  spiritual  eyes  are  supposed  to  do  all  the 
seeing  where  the  "  ought  to  be  "  and  the  "  ought  not 
to  be  "  are  to  be  considered.     He  is  expected,  simply, 


PERIOD  OF  YOUTH.  97 

machine  like,  to  execute  orders  without  any  regard 
even  to  the  existence  of  his  conscience.  Such  a  course, 
and  it  is  a  very  common  one,  soon  dwarfs  and  warps 
the  conscience  so  that  its  authority  is  little  felt  or  re- 
garded. 

(r).  The  proper  development  of  the  moral  nature 
demands  that  the  conscience  should  be  constantly 
called  into  exercise.  Commencing  with  infancy,  the 
child  should  be  guided  so  that  he  will  acquire  the 
habit  of  considering  always  before  doing  a  thing, 
whether  it  ought  or  ought  not  to  be  done.  This  habit 
should  not,  as  is  frequently  the  case,  have  reference 
to  one  or  two  classes  of  acts,  as,  for  example,  obedi- 
ence to  parents,  and  truthfulness.  It  should  be  co- ex- 
tensive with  the  child's  activities,  including  the  exer- 
cises of  the  body  and  of  the  mind.  Here  it  should 
be  carefully  noted,  that  the  decisions  of  the  child's 
conscience  have  reference  to  the  child's  view  of  the 
conditions  presented.  They  should  be  judged  and 
respected  as  such.  The  development  of  the  moral 
nature  is  possible  only  by  requiring  the  child  to  ex- 
ercise his  conscience  in  making  decisions  for  himself 
regarding  the  "  ought  to  be  "  and  the  "  ought  not  to 
be,"  and  to  act  upon  these  decisions  when  made.  This 
course  should  be  pursued  from  infancy  to  manhood 
by  both  parents  and  teachers.  In  all  kinds  of  school 
work,  as  well  as  in  matters  of  conduct,  there  should 
be  a  systematic,  constant,  and  direct  exercise  of  the 
conscience.  Pupils  should  not  be  forced  or  induced 
to  perform   their  work,  or  to  pursue  a  required  course 


98  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION 

of  conduct  simply  by  the  use  of  artificial  devices, 
such  as  marks,  prizes,  and  so  forth.  These  devices 
may  be  used  so  as  to  secure  present  results,  but  they 
never  leave  a  permanent  impression  upon  the  mind 
which  will  be  of  service  in  their  absence  in  control- 
ling and  directinij  both  work  and   conduct. 


PRINCIPLES    OF   pupil's    WORK. 

Under  this  head  will  be  outlined  the  principles  which 
concern  the  work  that  should  be  performed  by  pupils 
during  their  educational  course.  No  attempt  is  made, 
however,  to  outline  the  special  studies  or  exercises 
that  should  be  pursued.  The  suggestions  given  are  of 
a  general  nature  and  will  apply  to  the  execution  of 
any  curriculum   that   may   be  adopted. 

54.  The  ivork  performed  by  pupils  should  aecoin- 
plish  two  general  results ;  nai)iely,  self -development 
and  self-eqnipvient. 

{a).  The  word  zvork  in  this  proposition  is  used  in  a 
broad  sense.  It  includes  every  line  of  self-activity 
which  has  for  its  object  the  legitimate  development  and 
equipment  of  body  and  of  mind,  as  well  as  what  is  gen- 
erally known  as  work  proper,  or  productive  effort. 
Rightly  directed  sports,  calisthenics,  gymnastics,  etc., 
are  as  truly  a  part  of  the  work  which  should  be  re- 
quired of  pupils  as  the  study  of  books.  The  truth  of 
this   position    is  now  fully  recognized    in    the   kinder- 


PRINCIPLES  OF  PUPIVS   WORK.  99 

garten,  but  its  application  is  no  more  important  there 
than  at  every  stage  of  the  pupil's  progress  until  gradu- 
ating from  college.  Hence  it  is  as  imperative  a  duty  to 
supply  the  conditions  that  will  rightly  direct  the  pupil's 
physical  exercises  and  amusements,  throughout  his 
entire  educational  course,  as  it  is  to  apply  the  condi- 
tions that  wiU  rightly  direct  his  efforts  in  acquiring 
knowledge.         ' 

{b)^\  Self- development  is  of  two  kinds  ;  namely,  gen- 
eral and  special  or  professional.  The  nature  and  ex- 
tent of  the  former  has  already  been  outlined  (Arts.  8  to 
40  inclusive).  The  latter  has  reference  to  the  peculiar 
development  or  training  which  fits  a  person  for  a  special 
work.  The  training,  for  example,  which  fits  a  physician 
to  make  a  correct  diagnosis,  or  an  accountant  to  make 
accurate  and  rapid  calculations,  is  of  this  kind.  Special 
development  or  training  should  invariably  follow  and 
be  based  upon  a  thorough  course  of  general  training, 
and  should  be  the  result  of  lines  of  work  arranged  spe- 
cially for  that  purpose. 

{c).  Self-equipment  is  also  of  tvyo  kinds;  namely, 
general  and  special  or  professional.  The  former  has 
reference  to  the  acquisition  of  such  power,  aptitudes, 
methods  of  work,  and  knowledge  of  materials  and  ap- 
pliances as  will  give  a  thorough  general  preparation  for 
any  calling  in  life.  The  latter  has  reference  to  the  ac- 
quisition of  such  additional  professional  preparation  as 
may  be  necessary  for  effective  service  in  a  special  call- 
ing. This  should  be  invariably  based  upon,  and  shouKl 
follow   the    former    as    an    easy    and     natural    conse- 


lOO  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

quencc.  It  should  simply  be  the  result  of  supplement- 
ing the  power,  aptitudes  and  methods  of  work  already 
acquired  by  such  new  knowledge  of  materials  and  ap- 
pliances as  belong  specially  to  the  chosen  calling  This 
should  be  accomplished  by  pursuing  lines  of  work  ar- 
ranged with  special  reference  to  that  end. 

{d).  Self- equipment,  when  completed,  should  include, 
in  addition  to  what  has  been  noted  in  (r),  the  acquisition 
upon  the  part  of  pupils  of  the  following  :  (i)  A  definite 
knowledge  of  the  resources  within  themselves,  as  well  as 
those  outside  of  themselves,  upon  which  they  can  con- 
stantly draw  for  personal  enjoyment  and  for  intellect- 
ual, moral  and  spiritual  growth  ;  (2)  Habits  and  tastes 
for  reading  standard  authors  in  History,  Biography, 
Literature,  Science,  etc.,  which  will  insure  the  con- 
stant companionship  of  the  choicest  spirits  of-  all  ages, 
and  prove  an  effectual  bar  against  indulging  in  lines 
of  pleasure  and  reading  which  are  destructive  of  manly 
and  womanly  growth  ;  (3)  Such  knowledge  of  human 
nature,  and  such  sympathy  with  all  classes  and  con- 
ditions of  persons,  as  will  fit  them  to  enter  into  right 
and  effective  co-operative  relations  in  business,  in 
social  life,  and  in  beneficent  efforts  to  render  help 
to  those  who  are  in  need  of  it.  If  the  educational 
work  of  pupils  does  not  secure  to  them  these  three 
things,  in  addition  to  what  has  been  referred  to  in 
notes  {b)  and  {c),  it  must  be  regarded  as  largely  a  failure. 

55.  Self-activity  is  the  fundamental  condition  of 
all  healthy  development,  both  of  the  body  and  of  the  mind. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  PUPIVS   WORK.  lOl 

{a).  Self-activity  is  of  two  kinds ;  namely,  sponta- 
neous and  voluntary.  This  distinction  is  one  of  great 
importance  to  the  true  educator.  It  indicates  clearly 
the  only  two  classes  of  activity  by  which  the  devel- 
opment and  equipment  of  the  body  and  of  the  mind 
are  direetly  accomplished.  It  marks,  therefore,  sharply 
the  central  elements  in  the  pupil's  nature  to  which 
teachers  must  direct  their  attention  and  effort  in  the 
execution  of  their  work. 

{b\  Spontaneous  self-activity  in  the  case  of  the 
body  includes,  for  example,  such  activity  as  is  involved 
in  the  various  processes  of  nutrition  by  which  phys- 
ical growth  and  repair  are  carried  on.  This  form  of 
self-activity  is,  however,  only  one  of  two  elements  in 
physical  development.  The  other  element  is  voluntary 
self-activity,  which  takes  the  form  of  sports,  work, 
and  physical  exercise  of  various  sorts.  These  two 
elements  arc  inseparably  joined  to  each  other  in  the 
process  of  physical  development.  Their  co-opera- 
tion, under  right  conditions  and  in  right  proportions, 
is  the  chief  means  by  which  a  vigorous  and  healthy 
body  is  produced.  Here  it  should  be  noted  that,  of 
these  two  elements,  spontaneous  self-activity  stands 
first,  and  its  exercise  determines  the  limits  of  voluntary 
self-activity.  When  the  functions  of  nutrition,  for 
example,  arc  weak,  either  naturally  or  from  obstructing 
causes,  physical  exercise,  either  in  the  form  of  sports 
or  work,  must  be  carefully  guardeil  in  order  to  pro- 
tect the  body  from  permanent  injury. 

(r).   The   relation   of  spontaneous  to   voluntary  self- 


102  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCA  TION, 

activity  in  the  case  of  the  body,  pointed  out  in  {p), 
holds  equally  true  in  regard  to  the  mind.  Here 
spontaneous  self-activity  includes,  for  example,  the 
unconscious  mental  process  by  which  truth  is  digested 
and  assimilated  as  stated  in  Art.  40  {b).  This  un- 
conscious mental  process  performs  the  same  function 
in  the  development  of  mind  that  nutrition  does  in  the 
development  of  the  body.  The  voluntary  self-activity 
of  the  mind  also  includes  the  processes  of  observ- 
ing, comparing,  willing,  etc.  These  processes  corre- 
spond in  the  development  of  mind  to  physical  exer- 
cises of  various  kinds  in  the  development  of  the  body. 
(</).  From  what  has  just  been  stated  in  notes  {b)  and 
{c),  it  will  be  seen  that  the  success  of  our  efforts  for  the 
development  and  equipment  of  the  body  and  of  the 
mind  depends  upon  the  vigorous  and  rightly- adjusted 
exercise  of  spontaneous  and  voluntary  self-activity. 
This  fact  is  now  generally  recognized  and  acted  upon 
in  reference  to  the  body.  In  this  case,  the  condition 
of  the  process  of  nutrition  regulates  the  kind  and  de- 
gree of  physical  effort  that  will  best  promote  a  healthy 
physical  growth.  The  fixed  and  dependent  relation 
of  these  two  kinds  of  activity  is,  as  already  pointed 
out,  as  true  of  the  mind  as  oT  the  body.  Hence  the 
condition  of  the  unconscious  process  of  mental  diges- 
tion and  assimilation  regulates  the  kind  and  degree 
of  voluntary  mental  effort  which  will  best  promote  a 
healthy  mental  development.  Teachers  failing  to  rec- 
ognize and  act  upon  this  important  fact,  have  fre- 
quently inflicted   permanent   mental  injury  upon  their 


PRINCIPLES   OF  PUPIL'S    WORfC.  IO3 

pupils  by  forcing-  them  to  undertake  mental  work 
which  requires  the  exercise  of  voluntary  mental  activ- 
ity far  beyond  what  is  warranted  by  their  mental 
ability  to  digest  and  assimilate  truth. 

56.  Work,  rightly  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  pupils, 
is  the  principal  means  to  be  used  to  secure  their  self- 
development  and  self-eqnipniettt. 

{a).  Work  in  this  proposition  includes  every  line  of       >^ 
self-activity  which   contributes  legitimately,  and   with- 
out waste  of  time  or  energy,  to  the  self-development 
and  self-equipment  of  the  pupils.     Much  of  the  work 
now  performed  in   schools   fails  of  this   result.      Pupils 
are  frequently  forced  to  waste  their  time    and   energy    . 
in  a  fruitless  effort  to  do  work  which  is  entirely  beyond    i 
their  present  power  of  self-activity.  \ 

{U).  The  ivork  ni?cst  he  exactly  stilted  to  the  capac- 
ity of  the  pupils.  This  means  that  the  work  assigned 
at  any  time  must  be  such  as  can  be  performed  by  the 
pupils  themselves,  by  a  proper  exercise  of  the  self- 
activity  they  possess  at  that  time.  This  condition  is 
violated  almost  universally  in  regard  to  some  lines  of 
work  required  in  schools  and  colleges.  Pupils  are 
constantly  confronted  with  work  for  which  their  power 
of  self-activity  is  entirely  inadequate.  The  only  course 
left  in  such  cases  is  to  leave  the  work  undone,  or  to 
have  the  pupils  carried  through  it  by  injurious  helps 
rendered  by  teachers.  The  former  is  decidedly  the 
better  course  of  the  two,  but  cither  results  in  perma- 
nent injury  to  the  pupils. 


104  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

{c).  The  ivork  must  be  such  as  will  accomplish  in 
the  act  of  performing  it  the  ends  for  which  it  is  to  be 
performed.  There  should  be  a  definite  end  accomp- 
Hshed  by  every  kind  of  work  assigned  to  pupils.  This 
end  may  not  always  be  apparent  to  the  pupils,  but  the 
teacher  must,  in  every  case,  have  a  clear  conception  of 
it  in  order  to  be  able  rightly  to  guide  the  pupils  in 
their  work.  Here  it  must  be  carefully  noted  that  the 
ends  to  be  accomplished  must  always  determine  the 
kind  of  work  that  should  be  assigned  and  the 
method  of  doing  it.  Hence,  teachers  must  clearly 
apprehend  these  ends  in  order  rightly  to  assign  work, 
as  well  as  to  guide  in  its  performance.  Failing  in  this 
respect,  they  will  of  necessity  waste  their  own  time  as 
well  as  the  time  and  energy  of  their  pupils  in  aimless 
and  injurious  efiforts.  The  pupils  in  this  case  will  be 
kept  busy  in  doing  a  little  of  everything  and  nothing, 
in  doi)ig  and  undoing,  in  going  through  the  forms  of 
work,  while  practically  accomplishing  nothing  of  real 
value.  Much  of  the  work  done  in  many  schools,  in 
the  lower  branches,  is  of  this  kind.  A  large  share  of 
the  time  and  effort  spent  upon  reading,  arithmetic, 
grammar,  geography,  composition  and  like  subjects  is 
actually  worse  than  wasted,  because  of  its  aimless 
character.  The  illegitimate  use  frequently  made  of 
memory,  in  each  of  these  lines  of  work,  illustrates  this 
waste.  Pupils,  for  example,  are  required  to  fix  in  their 
memory  definitions,  rules,  forms  of  analysis,  and  other 
details  which  to  them,  at  the  time,  are  meaningless,  and 
which,   after   being   recited,    must    necessarily  be  very 


PRINCIPLES   OF  PUPIL'S    WORK.  IO5 

soon  forgotten.  All  work  of  this  kind  is  very  largely 
a  waste  of  time  and  energy  and  fails  to  accomplish  the 
end  for  which  it  is  performed. 

Again,  the  method  in  which  pupils  are  required  to 
perform  their  work  must  be  guarded  with  as  much  care 
as  the  kind  of  work  assigned  them.  The  importance 
of  this  is  well  illustrated  in  the  study  of  languages.  A 
language  is  usually  studied  for  one  of  two  purposes: 
first,  to  use  as  an  instrument  for  oral  or  written  com- 
munication with  others,  or  second,  to  use  as  an  exeget- 
ical  instrument.  In  acquiring  a  language  for  either  of 
these  purposes  some  of  the  work  should  be  performed 
exactly  in  the  same  way.  It  is,  however,  a  great  mis- 
take to  insist,  as  some  do,  that  the  same  method  should 
be  pursued  in  performing  the  entire  work.  The  critical 
study,  for  example,  of  the  technicalities  of  grammar 
and  of  fine  lexical  distinctions,  however  extensively  and 
thoroughly  pursued,  will  never  give  to  the  student  the 
power  of  speaking  a  language  correctly  or  even  of 
writing  it  with  ease  and  correctness.  If  this  is  the  end 
sought,  such  work  is  not  necessary,  and  hence,  if  per- 
formed, is  a  waste  of  the  pupil's  time.  On  the  other 
hand,  this  is  the  very  work  that  must  be  thoroughly 
done  if  the  end  sought  is  to  become  a  reliable  exegete. 
The  importance  of  adapting  a  method  of  doing  the 
work  to  the  end  to  be  accomplished  is  quite  as  marked 
in  the  study  of  some  other  subjects  as  in  languages. 
Hence  the  care  that  should  be  taken  by  teachers  to 
master  thoroughly,  in  every  subject,  the  relation  be- 
tween method  and  end. 


I06  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

{d).  The  arrangement  of  the  work  mi4st  harmonize 
ivitJi  the  order  of  self -development.  This  course  must 
be  pursued  during  the  formative  period  of  the  educa- 
tional process.  But  as  the  pupils  advance  and  become 
independent  workers,  the  logical  order  of  the  subjects 
studied  should  be  regarded,  and  finally  should  control 
in  the  arrangement  of  work  assigned.  Until  independ- 
ence is  possible,  however,  the  controlling  principle  in 
determining  the  nature  and  arrangement  of  the  work 
should  be  the  order  of  self-development.  This  order  can 
be  ascertained  and  properly  understood  only  as  the  result 
of  a  careful  study  of  the  physical  and  psychical  forces 
by  which  development  is  produced  at  every  stage  of 
the  entire  formative  period.  The  ascertained  ac- 
tion of  these  forces  indicates  that  the  arrangement 
of  work  should  conform  substantially  with  the  fol- 
lowing: 

(i).  The  amount  of  self-activity  a  pupil  can  put  forth 
in  one  act  must  always  determine  how  difficult  each 
step  of  loork  assigned  should  be  made.  In  reference  to 
this  statement,  it  should  be  observed  that  by  a  step  of 
ivork  is  meant  the  amount  of  work  a  pupil  should  be 
required  to  undertake  in  one  effort  or  act.  This  may 
be  called  the  pupil's  unit  of  work.  What  this  unit 
should  be  in  every  case  must  be  determined  by  the 
teacher,  and  should  be  gradually  increased  as  the 
pupil's  power  of  self-activity  increases.  Each  step  or 
unit  of  work  assigned  should  be  made  sufficiently  diffi- 
cult to  entice  effort,  but  not  so  difficult  as  either  to 
strain  or   to   discourage.       Pupils    like    to    do    difficult 


PRINCrPLES  OF  PUPIL'S   WORK.  IO7 

things  when  presented  to  them  in  a  way  to  afford 
pleasure  and  hence  incite  action. 

(2).  The  work  must  be  arranged  step  by  step,  so 
that  each  step  or  //////  can  be  performed  by  pupils  by 
the  exercise  of  their  own  self-activity.  Teachers 
should  aid  or  supplement  the  self-activity  of  their 
pupils,  first,  by  the  way  in  which  they  place  the  work 
before  them,  second,  by  supplying  right  incentives  to 
action,  and  third,  by  guarding  them  against  wrongly 
applying  their  strength  in  doing  the  work.  Usually, 
when  such  aid  as  this  fails,  the  work  should  be  left  un- 
done until  the  self-development  of  the  pupils  makes 
them  equal  to  the  task.  It  is  no  part  of  the  duty  of 
teachers  to  do  the  work  of  their  pupils,  or  by  the  use  of 
false  helps  to  carry  their  pupils  blindly  over  work  for 
which  their  present  power  of  self-activity  is  unequal. 
Teachers  who  make  such  a  work  their  duty  do  a  great 
injury  to  their  pupils. 

(3).  The  arrangement  of  the  work  must  be  such  that 
each  step,  when  performed,  will  prepare  the  pupils 
properly  for  the  next  step  in  advance.  Each  advanced 
step  should  follow  easily  and  naturally  from  the  pre- 
ceding step. 

57.  Tlie  work  of  pupils  should  be  of  suck  a  nature 
and  should  be  conducted  in  such  a  zvay  as  to  give  to 
them  a  thorough  mastery  of  fundamental  principles, 
while  avoiding  entirely  ivaste  of  time  and  effort  upon 
uncalled-for  details. 

(rtt).  A   large  share   of  the  time    and    energy  of  the 


I08  PRTNCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 


pupils  is  spent  in  many  schools  upon  the  acquisition  of 
details,  which,  in  the  very  nature  of  things,  will  be  ac- 
quired without  effort  when  the  right  time  comes. 
Many  of  these  details  stand  related  to  the  growth  of 
root-principles  of  the  mind,  in  the  same  way  as  leaves 
stand  related  to  the  growth  of  the  roots  and  stem  of  a 
plant.  The  leaves  will  come  of  themselves  when  the 
necessary  growth  of  root  and  stem  takes  place.  In  like 
manner  these  details  will  come  of  themselves  when  the 
necessary  growth  of  the  root-principles  of  the  mind  on 
which  they  depend  has  taken  place.  It  would  certainly 
be  regarded  as  a  very  foolish  waste  of  time  and  effort 
\.o  attempt  by  artificial  processes  to  put  leaves  upon 
plants.  It  is  no  less  foolish  a  waste  of  time  and  effort 
to  attempt  by  artificial  means  to  fix  in  the  memory  of 
pupils,  at  the  wrong  time,  details  which  will,  at  the 
right  time,  take  their  place  there  as  the  necessary 
products  of  mind  growth,  as  naturally  as  the  leaves 
take  their  place  upon  plants  as  the  necessary  products 
of  plant  growth. 

{b).  The  reason  generally  assigned  for  the  time  and 
effort  spent  in  acquiring  these  artificial  and  uncalled- 
for  details  is  the  mental  discipline  which  the  exercise 
affords.  This  reason  is  certainly  not  based  upon  a  good 
foundation.  But-  even  granting  that  some  mental  dis- 
cipline is  acquired,  the  same  mental  discipline  can  be 
had  in  much  larger  measure  by  performing  work 
whose  products  are  not  to  pass  out  of  the  mind  as  soon 
as  the  recitation  is  over ;  work  which  will  also  supply 
material   for   constant    mental   activity,  and  which  will 


PRryciPLES  OF  pupirs  work.  109 

broaden  the  field  of  the  pupil's  knowledge.  Aside, 
however,  from  any  other  consideration,  the  funda- 
mentals of  mental  growth  and  of  knowledge  are  too 
many  and  too  important  to  allow  a  single  day  of  the 
pupil's  time  to  be  spent  upon  acquiring  details  which 
serve  scarcely  any  purpose,  and  which  necessarily  pass 
out  of  mind  in  a  short  time. 

{c).  But,  again,  the  artificial  acquisition  of  uncalled- 
for  details  so  commonly  practiced  in  our  schools  does 
a  greater  injury  to  pupils  than  to  waste  their  time  and 
effort.  It  substitutes  artificial  and  unrelated  material 
for  the  mental  aliment  necessary  for  real  mind  growth. 
And  hence  it  actually  starves  mentally  a  large  number 
of  the  very  brightest  pupils.  Such  pupils  usually  become 
soured  and  disgusted  with  school  work  simply  because 
of  the  meaningless  drudgery  they  are  required  to  per- 
form in  fixing  in  the  memory  useless  details.  In  short, 
this  entire  course  makes  impossible,  in  a  very  large 
degree,  the  exercise  of  that  kind  of  self- activity  by 
which  alone  the  physical  and  mental  development  and 
equipment  of  the  pupils  can  be  accomplished. 

58.  The  work  of  pupils  from  the  infant  class  on 
through  college  should  be  conducted  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  cause  them  to  acquire  a  systematic  method  of 
doing  every  tiling  they  undertake. 

{11).  Pupils,  in  performing  their  work,  should  in- 
variably follow  the  course  of  an  investigator  and  not 
that  of  an  original  discoverer.  The  latter  is  in  search 
of  the  unknown,  not  only  to  himself  but  to  all  else  be- 


no  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 


sides;  hence  every  step  taken  is  involved  in  a  degree 
of  uncertainty.  Hypothesis  after  hypothesis  may  have 
to  be  made  and  rejected  before  reaching  a  final  result. 
This  process  is  necessarily  slow,  and  it  is  also  the 
work  of  a  mind  already  trained  rather  than  that  of  one 
needing  training.  Pupils  are  not  in  any  case  original 
discoverers  in  this  sense.  They  are  in  search  of  what 
is  to  them  unknown  but  what  is  fully  and  clearly 
known  to  others.  This  distinction  places  the  work  of 
pupils  upon  an  entirely  different  basis  from  that  of  an 
original  discoverer.  In  all  their  investigations  and 
search  after  truth  they  should  therefore  be  guided  by 
their  teachers  in  taking  advantage  of  methods,  means 
and  material  already  discovered  and  in  successful  use 
by  investigators  of  recognized  standing.  None  of  their 
time  should  be  wasted  in  going  through  the  slow  and 
necessarily  uncertain  steps  of  the  original  discoverer. 
The  field  of  work  they  should  undertake  is  too  ex- 
tensive to  admit  of  such  a  course. 

{li).  What  is  commonly  known  as  the  Inductive 
Method  is  the  true  course  to  pursue  in  all  rightly 
conducted  educational  work.  This  statement,  how- 
ever, if  understood  in  an  unlimited  sense,  includes  too 
much.  In  the  educational  process,  when  rightly  carried 
on.  Induction  and  Deduction  must  go  hand  in  hand. 
The  former  always  precedes  the  latter,  but  both  are 
equally  necessary  as  means  of  mental  development 
and  instruments  of  work.  Pupils,  therefore,  fail  of 
right  mental  development  and  of  right  equipment 
who  are  not    able    to    perform   work    successfully    in 


PRINCIPLES  OF  PUPIVS    WORK.  1 1 1 

which  each  of  these  methods  must  necessarily  be 
used. 

{c).  The  Inductive  Method  of  investigation  or  of 
performing  mental  work  consists  of  four  steps  ;  namely, 
Observation,  Comparison  and  Classification,  Deduction, 
Verification.  Before  stating  the  nature  and  ap- 
plication of  each  of  these  steps,  it  is  necessary  to  note 
that  Observation  includes  three  forms  of  mental 
activity;  namely,  Sensation,  Sense  Perception  and 
Ideation.  Sensation  denotes  the  mental  activity  called 
feeling,  which  is  produced  by  impressions  made  on  the 
sensitive  organs ;  Sense  Perception  denotes  the  mental 
activity  which  cognizes  an  outward  object  as  the  cause 
of  feeling  ;  and  Ideation  denotes  the  mental  activity 
which  forms  a  definite  representation  or  idea  in  the 
mind  of  the  object  of  Sense  Perception.  A  treatise  on 
psychology  must  be  consulted  for  a  full  statement  of 
the  nature  and  relation  of  these  three  forms  of  mental 
activity  to  each  other  and  their  place  in  the  educa- 
tional process.  It  must,  however,  be  stated  here  that 
the  acquisition  upon  the  part  of  pupils  of  an  acute 
sensitiveness  to  impressions  made  upon  the  organs  of 
sense,  and  also  of  strong  and  active  powers  of  sense 
perception  and  of  ideation,  is'  a  matter  of  vital  im- 
portance to  their  progress  in  mental  growth  and  in 
mental  work. 

[d).  Observation,  the  first  step  in  the  Inductive 
Method,  consists  of  a  systematic  search  for  existing 
facts,  for  what  is,  and  an  examination  of  the  nature 
of  these  facts  and  their   relation   to    each    other      This 


112  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

search  and  examination  is,  in  the  first  place,  confined 
to  noting  the  structure  and  nature  of  individual  objects 
or  definite  units  of  investigation,  and  is  usually  con- 
ducted in  one  of  four  ways:  First,  the  work  may  be 
performed  by  the  use  of  the  senses  alone  ;  second,  by 
the  use  of  the  senses  supplemented  by  instruments  such 
as  the  eyeglass,  microscope,  telescope,  etc.;  third,  by 
the  use  of  the  senses  supplemented  by  experiments  in 
which  apparatus  and  various  mechanical  devices  are 
used,  as  in  chemistry,  physics,  etc.;  fourth,  by  the  use 
of  the  senses,  without  what  is  known  as  apparatus,  but 
supplemented  by  experiments,  in  which  various  kinds 
of  changes  are  made  in  the  object  under  examination, 
in  its  form,  conditions  of  existence,  representation,  etc., 
such  as  are  of  service  in  the  study  of  Reading,  Lan- 
guages, Mathematics,  Botany,  Physiology,  etc. 

{e).  In  conducting  Observation,  the  object  or  unit 
of  investigation  must  first  be  viewed  as  a  whole.  Then, 
step  by  step,  each  fact  in  reference  to  the  structure  and 
nature  of  the  object  is  noted,  until  the  vague  whole 
of  the  first  act  is  seen  to  consist  of  an  aggregate  of  parts 
possessing  various  properties.  Thus  it  will  be  seen 
that  Observation  is,  in  a  certain  sense,  an  analytic  or 
decomposing  process  by  which  the  mind  is  placed  in 
conscious  relations  to  all  of  the  elements  which  con- 
stitute a  given  complex  unit  or  whole.  This  process, 
rightly  conducted,  involves  three  steps.  In  the  first 
step  a  note  is  made  of  all  the  facts  as  they  exist  or 
of  what  is,  and  in  the  second  of  the  relation  existing 
between  these  parts  or  between  the    elements   compos- 


PRINCIPLES  OF  PUPinS    WORK.  I  I  3 

ing  the  unit  under  consideration.  After  these  two 
steps,  which  are  usually  regarded  as  Observation 
proper,  have  been  completed,  a  third  step,  of  a  differ- 
ent nature,  must  be  taken  in  order  to  give  pupils  the 
full  mental  benefit  of  the  work  performed.  The  third 
step  consists  of  a  synthetic  mental  effort  by  which  all 
the  facts,  elements  and  relations  noted  are  formed 
into  a  mental  unit  or  idea  representing  the  object  ob- 
served, and  to  which  a  name  is  attached  by  which  it 
can  be  recalled  at  pleasure  and  made  the  subject 
of  thought,  in  the  absence  of  the  object  which  it  repre- 
sents. This  last  step  is  one  of  vital  importance  in  men- 
tal development.  The  other  two  steps  fill  an  import- 
ant place,  but  they  may  be  performed  with  apparent 
success  without  resulting  in  any  valuable  mental 
strength.  Indeed,  where  the  third  step  is  partially  or 
wholly  neglected,  they  result  in  weakening  rather  than 
in  strengthening  mental  effort.  Pupils,  in  such  a  case, 
gradually  become  helplessly  dependent  for  mental 
activity  upon  the  actual  presence  of  the  objects.  Such 
a  result  is  to  be  carefully  avoided,  but  this  can  only  be 
done  by  persistently  making  each  pupil  complete  the 
process  of  observation  by  forming  a  vivid  mental  pict- 
ure of  the  object  observed  in  the  way  indicated  in  the 
third  step. 

(/).  The  process  of  Observation,  including  Ideation 
or  the  third  step  referred  to  in  {e),  is  fundamental  to 
every  kind  of  work  which  must  be  performed  by  pu- 
pils in  the  act  of  developing  and  equipping  their  minds. 
It   is   the    key  to    the  highest   success    at   every   stage 


114  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

of  the  pupil's  progress  in  the  study  of  languages,  math- 
ematics, physical  and  mental  sciences,  theology,  phil- 
osophy and  every  other  department  of  mental  effort. 
Hence  the  importance  of  rightly  initiating  and  direct- 
ing pupils  in  acquiring  the  power  and  forming  the  habit 
of  performing  every  line  of  their  work  in  this  way  can- 
not be  overestimated  or  too  strongly  emphasized. 
The  training  in  this  matter  should  commence  in  the 
infant  class  and  should  be  continued  throughout  the 
entire  educational  course.  During  the  earlier  stages 
of  school  life  the  observations  of  pupils  cannot  be  used 
as  reliable  data  on  which  to  base  conclusions.  This 
condition  of  things  will,  however,  gradually  disappear 
if  teachers  give  proper  and  earnest  attention  to  the 
training  of  the  senses,  and  guide  their  pupils  in  their 
use  in  each  of  the  four  ways  pointed  out  in  {d).  Here 
it  should  be  noted  that  only  observations  conducted  by 
trained  senses,  under  the  guidance  and  control  of  a 
trained  intellect  and  will,  can  supply  reliable  data  on 
which  to  base  conclusions  that  are  final.  Hence  the 
care  that  must  be  taken  in  guiding  pupils  in  observing 
and  collecting  data  from  which  they  are  required  to 
deduce  principles,  laws,  formulas,  rules,  or  definitions. 

i^g).  Comparison  and  Classification,  the  second  step 
in  the  Inductive  Method,  consists  of  the  process  by 
which  general  propositions  are  formed  from  observed 
particulars.  This  process  is  in  fact  a  farther  applica- 
tion of  Observation,  including  Ideation,  or  the  third 
step  referred  to  in  {e)  Observation  proper,  as  con- 
sidered in  {(.i),  is  restricted  to  noting  the  facts   in  refer- 


PRINCIPLES  OF  PUPIDS   WORK.  1 1 5 

cnce  to  the  nature  and  structure  of  individual  objects  or 
definite  units  of  investigation  of  any  kind.  When  this 
work  is  exhaustively  performed,  and  the  facts  observed  in 
reference  to  each  of  a  number  of  objects  have  been  ar- 
ranged in  groups  by  themselves,  the  work  of  Observation 
proper  is  completed  and  the  material  is  ready  for  Cot)i- 
parison  and  Classification.  This  step  consists  in  com- 
paring the  groups  of  elements  or  properties  formed  by 
Observation,  and  noting,  first,  how  many  of  these  ele- 
ments or  properties  are  possessed  in  common  by  all 
of  the  objects,  and  second,  that  the  elements  or  proper- 
ties possessed  in  common  can  be  affirmed  equally 
of  each  of  the  objects,  and  hence  that  a  general  propo- 
sition can  be  formed  making  this  affirmation.  It 
should  here  be  carefully  observed  that  general  propo- 
sitions formed  in  this  way  are  general  only  in  the  sense 
that  the  predicate  applies  to  all  of  the  objects,  repre- 
sented by  the  subject  of  the  proposition,  which  have 
been  included  in  the  previous  process  of  Observation. 

(/;).  In  reference  to  the  nature  of  Deduction,  the 
third  step  in  the  Inductive  Method,  and  the  grounds 
on  which  the  process  is  based  there  are  different  views 
held  by  good  authorities.  As  to  the  relative  merits  of 
these  views,  works  on  Inductive  Logic  must  be  con- 
sulted. In  this  connection,  however,  the  subject 
must  be  regarded  simply  as  an  element  of  the  edu- 
cational process ;  as  such  the  practical  and  perhaps 
commonly  accepted  view  is  all  that  need  be  stated. 
From  this  standpoint,  therefore.  Deduct  ion,  as  the 
third  step  in  the   Inductive  Method,  may  be   defined 


Il6  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

as  the  process  by  which  we  determine  when  the 
predicate  of  a  general  proposition  can  be  affirmed  of 
an  object  which  was  not  included  among  the  objects 
observed  when  the  proposition  was  originally  formed. 
The  practical  application  of  this  process  is  very  varied. 
The  correctness  of  the  conclusion  reached  in  any 
given  case  depends  largely  upon  the  intuitive  acute- 
ness  of  the  observer,  and  upon  the  closeness  of  the 
relation  of  the  nature  and  structure  of  the  object  pre- 
sented to  the  objects  considered  in  forming  the  original 
proposition.  Suppose,  for  example,  the  general  pro- 
position to  be.  Oxen  cJiciv  the  cud,  and  that  this  was 
formed  from  observations  made  upon  ten  specimens. 
In  case  another  ox  is  presented  differing  in  size,  color 
and  general  appearance  from  those  examined,  the 
conclusion  would  be  readily  drawn  that  he  also  chews 
the  cud.  This  conclusion  would  be  based  not  upon 
identity  but  upon  marked  resemblance  in  structure.  But 
now  suppose  a  bison  in  place  of  another  ox  is  pre- 
sented, the  conclusion  would  not  be  so  readily  drawn,  if  at 
all,  and  still  less  so  if  a  deer  is  substituted  for  the  bison. 
Yet  in  both  of  these  cases  a  more  careful  observation 
of  resemblances  in  structure  and  habits  would  un- 
doubtedly lead  to  the  conclusion  that  both  chew  the 
cud.  Deductions  of  this  sort  are  never  to  be  regarded 
as  absolutely  certain  until  verified.  They  possess, 
however,  varied  degrees  of  certainty,  according  to  the 
conditions  under  which  they  are  made.  This  fact 
must  be  impressed  upon  pupils,  and  they  must  be 
carefully  trained  in  recognizing  readily  data  from  which 


PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHERS'    WORK.  II7 


reliable  deductions  can  be  made.  This  is  important, 
as  the  process  oi  Deduction ,  or  third  step  of  the  induc- 
tive method,  is  the  chief  means  through  which  their 
knowledge,  in  every  line  of  investigation,  is  system- 
atically broadened. 

(/).  Verification,  the  fourth  step  in  the  Inductive 
Method,  consists  in  the  process  of  verifying  deductions 
made  by  means  of  the  third  step  as  outlined  in  note  {Ji). 
This  is  done  by  submitting  the  object  or  unit  in 
reference  to  which  the  deduction  is  made  to  the  same 
scrutiny  by  Observation  and  by  Comparison  and 
Classification  as  was  given  the  objects  with  which  it  is, 
by  Deduction,  now  classified.  The  notes  on  Observa- 
tion and  on  Comparison  and  Classification  can  be 
referred  to  in  regard  to  the  manner  of  conducting 
the  process  of  Verification. 


PRINCIPLES    OF   TEACHERS     WORK. 

There  are  at  least  a  '^o.w  general  principles  which 
all  teachers  should  regard  in  performing  their  work. 
These,  however,  are  of  such  a  nature  as  to  leave 
teachers  perfectly  free  to  exercise,  in  every  respect, 
their  own  individuality.  The  work  of  teachers,  like 
all  other  kinds  of  work,  can  be  conducted  success- 
fully only  by  men  and  women  who  bring  to  it  a 
strong  personalit)'  ;  a  personality  which  will  assert 
itself  in  original  methods  of  doi«g  things  suited  to 
the  special  conditions   under  which   the  work  must  be 


Il8  ?RmCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

performed.  Persons  of  this  sort  are  usually  possessed 
of  tact  and  a  good  degree  of  common  sense,  and 
hence,  while  working  in  their  own  "  harness,"  will 
take  advantage  of,  and  be  guided  by,  principles  that 
have  given  success  to  others  in  doing  a  similar 
line  of  work.  Such  persons  among  teachers  are 
always  ready  and  anxious  to  study  and  apply  all 
suggestions  coming  from  the  experience  of  others. 
Hence  the  following  outline  of  principles  is  not  given 
with  the  view  of  setting  forth  a  fixed  method  of 
teaching  which  all  should  blindly  follow,  but  rather  for 
the  purpose  of  presenting  materials  and  suggestions 
which  may  be  helpful  to  teachers  as  a  basis  for  careful 
thought  upon  the  way  in  which  their  work  should  be 
conducted. 

GENERAL     PRINCIPLES. 

59  The  zvork  of  teachers  is  co-extensive  with  the 
entire  educational  process  by  wJiicJi  both  the  body  and 
the  mind  of  their  pupils  are  developed  and  equipped. 

{ix).  The  view,  very  commonly  entertained,  which 
regards  teachers  simply  as  instrnctors  or  the  uicdiuuis 
through  which  the  pupils  are  to  acquire  knozoledge  is 
entirely  wrong.  This  is  only  a  very  small  part  of 
their  work.  Their  work  includes  a  much  more  im- 
portant and  wider  range  than  this.  It  has  to  do  not 
only  with  imparting  knowledge,  but  with  every  line 
of  physical  and  mental  activity  which  contributes  in 
any  way  to  developing  and    equipping    their    pupils. 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES.  1 19 

It  has,  therefore,  to  do  with  molding  every  phase  of 
the  nature  of  the  pupils,  including  the  physical,  in- 
tellectual, moral  and  spiritual.  Hence  the  way  in 
which  this  work  is  understood  and  performed  will 
determine  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  products  of 
the  educational  course  of  the  pupils. 

{b).  The  nature  and  extent  of  the  work  to  be  per- 
formed determines  the  qualifications  which  teachers 
should  possess.  These  qualifications  should  be  such  as 
will  place  them  in  vital  and  helpful  relation  to  their 
pupils  in  every  line  of  effort  their  pupils  must  pursue 
in  promoting  self-development  and  self-equipment. 

60.  The  zvork  of  teachers  in  a  general  sense  consists 
in  snpplying  the  conditions  or  occasions  for  the  vigorous 
and  healthful  exercise  of  the  self-activities  of  their 
pupils. 

[a).  Teachers  are,  in  an  important  sense,  co-workers 
with  their  pupils,  but  this  does  not  mean  that  they  are 
to  join  with  their  pupils  and  actually  perform  a  part  of 
their  work.  They  are  co-workers  not  in  this  sense,  but 
in  the  sense  of  conditioning  their  pupils  so  that  they 
can  and  will  of  themselves  perform  the  work  assigned 
to  them.  On  the  carefulness  with  which  teachers  pur- 
sue this  course  will  depend  the  amount  of  real  good 
they  will  render  their  pupils  in  the  matter  of  self- 
development  and  preparation  for  becoming  effective 
workers  in  their  life  calling.  The  following  hints  in 
reference  to  this  course  and  in  reference  to  what 
'  teachers  cannot  do  for  their  pupils  should  be  noted. 


I20  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

{It).  Teachers,  in  conditioning  properly  their  pupils 
for  their  work,  should  see  that  their  surroundings  are 
made  pleasant,  that  they  are  supplied  with  plenty  of 
fresh  and  healthful  air,  that  they  are  kept  entirely 
free  from  petty  annoyances  from  fellow  pupils,  and 
from  needless  requirements  and  restrictions,  that  their 
time  for  doing  their  work  is  systematically  arranged 
and  that  right  physical  exercises  are  provided  at  proper 
intervals  during  the  school  hours.  All  these  conditions 
are  properly  within  the  control  of  energetic  and  rightly 
qualified  teachers,  and  should  receive  special  attention 
because  they  are  of  real  importance  to  the  success  of 
their  pupils  in  their  work. 

{c).  Teachers,  in  rightly  conditioning  their  pupils, 
must  supply  them  with  proper  incentives  in  their  work. 
These  incentives  must  be  varied  according  to  the  age, 
advancement  in  study,  past  and  present  environments, 
special  ambitions,  and  other  conditions  peculiar  to  the 
pupils.  But  in  no  case  should  false  incentives  be  used 
which  have  only  a  present  and  perhaps  momentary 
effect,  such  as  sweetmeats,  promises  of  certain  selfish 
indulgences,  gifts  and  prizes.  Incentives  of  the  right 
kind  should  invariably  have  their  origin  in  the  kind  of 
work  performed,  in  the  manner  of  performing  it,  in  the 
knowledge  or  other  products  to  be  attained,  in  the 
ideal  end  of  every  effort  in  the  way  of  self-develop- 
ment, and  in  present  pleasant  experiences  as  the  result 
of  successful  effort.  These  incentives  must  be  con- 
stantly held  before  the  pupils  in  the  life  of  their 
teachers,   both  in  word  and  deed,  in  precept  and  ex- 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES.  121 

ample.  Teachers  should  be  an  inspiration  to  their 
pupils  in  all  these  things.  Their  own  earnest,  prompt 
and  systematic  performance  of  every  work  should  be 
one  of  the  strongest  incentives  to  their  pupils  to  pursue 
a  like  course.  Their  watchword  in  every  line  of  effort 
should  always  be  come  and  not  go. 

{li).  Teachers,  in  rightly  conditioning  their  pupils  for 
their  work,  must  see  that  the  work  assigned  is  properly 
adapted  to  the  present  power  of  self-activity  possessed 
by  the  pupils  (Art.  56)  (/-'),  that  it  is  rightly  arranged  so 
that  every  step  prepares  for  the  next  (Art.  56)  (r/),  that 
it  is  rightly  executed,  and  that  the  final  products  are 
reduced  to  systematized  knowledge.  In  this  matter 
everything  depends  upon  the  qualifications  of  the 
teachers  for  their  work.  They  will  fail  in  supplying 
these  conditions  unless  they  have  definite  and  clear 
views  regarding  them  and  are  possessed  of  the 
power  that  will  enable  them  rightly  to  execute  their 
views. 

(r).  Teachers,  in  seeking  to  condition  their  pupils 
properly  for  their  work,  must  note  carefully  wliat  they 
cannot  do  for  them.  No  person,  for  example,  can 
digest  or  assimilate  food  for  another,  nor  take  for 
another  the  exercise  and  rest  necessary  for  this  pur- 
pose. In  this  case  the  only  help  one  person  can 
render  another  is  to  supply  healthful  food  in  proper 
quantities  and  at  proper  times,  and  also  right  condi- 
tions for  iieeded  exercise  and  rest.  What  is  true  of 
the  development  of  the  body  is  equally  true  of  the 
development  of  the   mind.       No  person    can  perceive. 


122  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

feci,  reason,  or  understand  for  another.  All  operations 
of  the  mind,  by  which  it  is  developed,  are  as  strictly 
personal  as  the  functions  of  nutrition  in  reference  to  the 
body.  Each  mind  must  do  its  own  work  or  else  it 
remains  forever  undone.  We  can  acquire  experiences 
of  all  sorts,  but  we  cannot  impart  them  to  any  one 
else.  All  we  can  do  in  this  case  for  others  is  to 
supply  them  with  the  conditions  through  which  our 
experiences  came  to  us.  The  mental  effort  put  forth 
by  us  in  gaining  these  experiences  must  be  put  forth  by 
every  one  else  who  would  acquire  precisely  the  same 
experiences  and  the  mental  development  accompany- 
ing them.  This  is  true  not  only  of  intellectual,  but 
also  of  moral  and  spiritual  experiences. 

6i.  Teachers  should  possess  substantially  the  follow- 
ing general  qnalifications  in  order  to  be  able  rightly 
to  condition  their  pupils  for  the  development  of  a  re- 
liable and  symmetrical  character. 

{a).  They  should  possess  a  reliable,  transparent 
and  unimpeachable  character  and  a  strong  personality, 
marked  by  tact  and  good  common  sense. 

(li).  They  should  possess  the  power  of  forming,  in- 
tuitively, a  reliable  estimate  of  the  real  character  of 
their  pupils,  and  of  the  forces  by  which  their  conduct 
is  directed  and  controlled. 

{e).  They  should  possess  a  commanding  presence, 
accompanied  by  a  sympathetic  nature,  guided  by  a  sen- 
sitive conscience  and  firm  and  controlling  will. 

{li).  They   should   be   true   to   every  duty  and  per- 


GENERAL   PRINCTl'LES.  I  23 

sonal  conviction,  yet  generous  and  fair  in  their  treat- 
ment of  the  convictions  of  others,  recognizing  in  the 
fullest  sense  the  principle  of  "  Soul  Libefty"  and 
maintaining  in  acts,  as  well  as  in  words,  the  ^^ Golden 
Rule''  as  the  true  standard  of  life's  conduct. 

(r).  They  should  be  sympathetic  towards  their  pu- 
pils, giving  to  them  their  confidence  and  rendering 
them  effective  help  whenever  necessary. 

(/).  They  should  be  entirely  impartial  in  all  their 
dealings  with  their  pupils.  Their  course  in  this  respect 
should  be  so  transparent  that  no  pupil  can  fail  to  rec- 
ognize the  just  and  unbiased  character  of  their  actions. 

i^g).  They  should  exercise  a  kind  and  diligent  watch- 
fulness over  every  step  in  the  progress  of  their  pupils 
in  manly  and  womanly  self-development,  surrounding 
them  constantly  with  the  most  favorable  conditions  to 
promote  this  end. 

(/;).  They  should  be  models  to  their  pupils  in  all 
things  that  pertain  to  personal  conduct,  or  that  pertain 
to  any  line  of  school  work  in  which  pupils  are 
engaged.  They  should  never  fail  to  sustain  by  their 
own  acts  every  requirement  they  make  of  their 
pupils. 

The  foregoing  general  qualifications  are  fundamental, 
as  they  constitute  the  basis  which  gives  effectiveness  to 
all  others.  Teachers  who  are  defective  in  these,  how- 
ever well  qualified  for  their  work  in  other  respects, 
must  of  necessity  largely  fail  in  rightly  conditioning 
their  pupils  for  the  successful  development  of  a  trust- 
worthy character. 


124  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 


SPECIAL   PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING. 

Under  this  head  are  outlined  the  principles  of  mental 
activity  which  should  invariably  guide  teachers  in  the 
work  of  imparting  instruction.  Teaching  proper  is  the 
process  by  which  teachers  condition  the  minds  of  their 
pupils  so  that  they  may  be  able :  {a)  To  gain  a  clear, 
accurate  and  comprehensive  knowledge  of  all  the  truths 
involved  in  each  subject  on  which  they  receive  instruc- 
tion; {li)  To  digest  and  assimilate  the  truths  acquired 
and  make  them  a  permanent  possession,  which  can  be 
recalled  to  consciousness  whenever  occasion  requires; 
{c)  To  discover  the  practical  applications  of  the  knowl- 
edge acquired  in  the  common  affairs  of  life,  and  to 
gain  the  ability  to  make  these  applications.  When 
teachers  condition  their  pupils  so  as  to  accomplish 
successfully  each  of  these  three  ends  they  will,  at  the 
same  time,  condition  them  so  as  to  accomplish  in  the 
best  manner  their  self-development  and  self- equipment. 
The  following  propositions  and  notes  suggest  the  way 
in  which  this  work  should  be  done. 

62.  The  mind  must  gain  through  the  senses  its 
knoivledge  of  everythijtg  cxter}ial  to  itself. 

{a).  This  proposition  is  self-evident  and  should  be 
the  invariable  guide  of  teachers  in  conditioning  their 
pupils  in  gaining  a  knowledge  of  material  things. 

{b).  In  every  case  possible,  when  an  object  is  first 
studied  it  should  be  present  to  the  senses.  But  as 
soon  as  clearly  defined  in  the  mind  it  should  be  with- 


SPECIAL   PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING.  125 

drawn,  and  pupils  should  be  required  by  the  exercise 
of  Ideation  to  continue  the  object  before  the  mind  as 
a  definite  subject  of  thought.  The  continuance  of 
the  use  of  objects  beyond  the  limit  stated  is  a  source 
of  weakness  and  permanent  injury  to  the  pupils. 

{c).  When  the  objects  studied  cannot  be  present  to 
the  sense,  as  in  geography  and  similar  subjects,  models 
should  be  used,  and,  where  this  cannot  be  done, 
drawings  and  pictures.  It  must  here  be  noted,  how- 
ever, that  subjects  of  this  kind  can  only  be  studied 
properly  after  pupils  have  acquired  sufficient  power  in 
the  exercise  of  constructive  imagination  to  enable 
them,  by  the  aid  of  a  model,  drawing  or  picture  to 
construct  a  correct  and  vivid  representation  in  their 
own  minds  of  the  real  objects  they  are  engaged  in 
studying.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that,  until  this 
power  is  acquired,  models,  drawings  and  pictures  are 
to  the  pupils  just  what  they  appear  to  be  to  their 
senses,  hence  they  fail  almost  entirely  to  comprehend 
the  true  nature  of  the  objects  on  which  instruction  is 
attempted  to  be  given. 

{ci).  In  the  use  of  objects  three  ends  are  to  be  accom- 
plished. First,  the  power  of  the  senses  is  to  be  developed. 
This  requires  great  care  upon  the  part  of  teachers 
in  selecting  and  arranging  the  objects  to  be  used.  It 
also  requires  equal  care  in  the  method  of  conducting 
exercises  for  this  purpose.  Second,  a  correct  knowledge 
of  the  nature  and  properties  of  material  things  and 
clear  and  accurate  definitions  are  to  be  secured.  This 
is  the  result  of  systematic  study  and  instruction.      Ob- 


126  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

jects  used  in  a  rambling  way  in  what  is  known  as  ob- 
ject lessons,  or  for  illustrative  purposes,  fail  of  this  end. 
Such  a  use  may,  perhaps,  be  legitimate  for  other  pur- 
poses, but  not  for  this.  Third,  the  proper  development 
of  the  power  of  Ideation  is  at  first  to  be  accomplished 
almost  exclusively  in  this  way.  This  is  perhaps  the  most 
important  thing  that  can  be  done  for  pupils,  particularly 
during  the  earlier  stages  of  their  work.  Their  success 
in  prosecuting  the  more  abstract  subjects  of  study 
depends  very  largely  upon  their  ability  to  form  correct 
and  vivid  mental  representations,  not  only  of  objects 
of  sense  but  also  of  every  mental  object  of  thought. 
The  latter,  however,  is  based  upon  the  former,  hence 
the  importance  of  emphasizing  strongly  the  exercise 
of  Ideation  in  connection  with  the  use  of  objects. 

63.  The  mind  can  exercise  only  a  definite  amount  of 
energy  at  any  one  time.  This  amount  varies  with  age, 
natural  ability,  and  degree  of  development. 

{a).  As  a  necessary  consequence  of  this  limitation  of 
the  exercise  of  mental  power,  it  is  evident  that  the  un- 
developed mind,  such  as  that  of  the  child,  can  give 
attention  only  to  one  thing  at  a  time.  Hence  teachers 
in  assigning  work,  and  in  conditioning  pupils  properly 
for  its  performance,  must  have  careful  regard  to  the 
average  minimum  of  mental  power  their  pupils  can 
exercise. 

(b).  Teachers,  in  all  explanations,  in  conformity  with 
this  principle,  should  present  only  one  step  at  a  time, 
and  each  step  should  be  held  before  the  mind   of  the 


SPECIAL  PRINCIPLES  OF   TEACIIIXG.  12/ 


pupils  until  it  is  so  clearly  defined  that  it  requires 
but  little  energy  to  hold  it  while  a  new  step  is  under- 
taken. When  teachers  fail  to  pursue  this  course,  ex- 
planations which  may  be  clear  and  full  make  usually 
only  a  confused  impression  upon  the  minds  of  the 
average  pupils.  Their  mental  power  is  not  equal  to 
holding  before  them  a  clear  and  vivid  representation  of 
a  series  of  steps  which  have  been  rapidly  presented  by 
the  teacher.  Hence,  they  become  confused  and  even 
discouraged,  and,  consequently,  their  own  time  as  well 
as  their  teacher's  must  be  wasted  in  several  repetitions 
of  an  explanation  which,  if  properly  presented  at  first, 
would  have  been  understood. 

{c).  In  keeping  also  with  this  principle,  all  illustra- 
tions used  should  be  simple  and  familiar,  in  order  not 
to  overtax  the  energy  of  the  pupils,  nor  divert  their 
attention  and  mental  strength  from  the  very  thing 
illustrated. 

64.  fhc  mind  proceeds  from  the  simple  to  the  eo)?i- 
plcXy  from  the  knoivn  to  the  :i)iknoion,  from  the  par- 
ticular to  the  general. 

This  fixed  order  of  the  exercise  of  mental  activity 
makes  it  imperative  upon  teachers  to  arrange  all  ma- 
terial made  a  subject  of  study  by  their  pupils  substan- 
tially as  follows  : 

[a).  So  that  what  is  complex  or  dependent  upon 
other  matter  is  preceded  by  the  elements  of  which  it  is 
composed  and  the  matter  on  which  it  depends  ; 

(/;).   So  that  the  known  may  stand    in   such   relations 


128  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

to  the  unknown  as  will  serve  to  place  the  pupils  in  a 
position,  which  will  require  them  to  include  in  their 
observation  of  the  known  the  elements  of  the  unknown, 
by  which  a  correct  knowledge  of  it  will  be  acquired  ; 

{c).  So  that  in  every  case  a  sufficient  number  of  par- 
ticulars must  be  examined  before  general  propositions 
or  statements  are  formulated. 

61;.  The  mind  perceives  ivJiolcs  first,  then  parts ; 
differences,  them^n  ila  ritiesJ 

{a).  It  follows  froifr-thi<^  principle  that  all  complex 
objects  of  study  are  perceived,  in  the  first  place,  in  a 
vague  and  indefinite  manner  ;  that  they  are  made  dis- 
tinct, definite  and  comprehensive  just  to  the  extent 
they  are  [Art.  58  {d)  to  {g)]  analyzed,  by  the  process  of 
Observation  and  Comparison,  into  elements  or  parts 
that  can  be  readily  and  clearly  perceived,  and  to  the 
extent  that  these  elements  or  parts  are  again  formed 
into  mental  units,  by  an  act  of  constructive  Ideation, 
which  correctly  represent  the  objects  studied. 

[b).  Wholes  that  are  made  objects  of  study  must  be 
such  as  can  be  perceived  vaguely  in  a  single  act  of  the 
mind.  When  this  cannot  be  done  there  is  no  basis 
presented  for  mental  activity,  and  hence  such  wholes 
cannot  in  any  proper  sense  become  real  objects  of 
study.  Here  it  must  be  noted  that  the  wholes  or 
units  that  can  be  taken  in  by  a  single  act  of  mind 
varies  in  breadth  or  size  according  to  the  mental  power 
acquired.  Hence  it  is  imperative  upon  teachers  to 
analyze  each  object  or   subject  assigned  to  pupils  into 


SPECIAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHIVG.  1 29 

such  dependent  parts  or  units  as  are  adapted  to  their 
average  mental  strength,  and  to  place  before  their  pu- 
pils, as  an  object  of  study,  only  one  of  these  parts  at 
a  time. 

(r).  The  wholes  or  units  of  study  assigned  to  pupils 
should,  in  every  case,  be  made  clear  and  comprehensi- 
ble to  their  minds  by  a  definite  exercise  of  their  own 
self- activity.  To  accomplish  this,  they  must  of  them- 
selves analyze  and  form  into  vivid  mental  representa- 
tions the  wholes  assigned  in  the  manner  pointed  out  in 
note  {ii).  In  this  self-effort,  if  the  wholes  assigned  are 
properly  adapted  to  the  pupils,  only  such  aid  should  be 
given  by  the  teachers  as  will  guide  their  work  in  a 
manner  to  prevent  waste  of  time  and  energy  in  wrong 
directions. 

(«/).  Differences  attract  attention  before  similarities  ; 
hence  study,  rightly  conducted,  is  chiefly  a  process  of 
differentiation.  The  first  step  in  this  process  is  to  dis- 
tinguish the  known  from  the  unknown ;  then,  second, 
to  note  the  special  marks  or  differences  which  sepa- 
rate the  units  or  elements  of  the  known  from  each 
other.  When  pupils  have  performed  these  two  steps, 
and  can  clearly  discriminate  what  they  know  from  what 
they  do  not  know,  and  the  units  or  elements  of  the 
known  from  each  other,  they  have  laid  the  right  foun- 
dation for  a  successful  effort  in  investigating  and  mas- 
tering the  unknown. 

6^.  The  mind  can  be  properly  developed  and  equipped 
for  work  only  as  its  experietiecs  arc  the  direct  products 


I30  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

of  its  0ZV71  efforts,  and  as  these  experiences  are  by  its 
own  efforts  transformed  into  systematized  knowledge. 

{a).  It  must  here  be  observed  that  full  compliance 
with  this  principle  does  not  require  that  pupils  pursue 
the  same  course  in  performing  their  work  as  original 
discoverers.  Pupils  are,  as  already  stated,  investigators 
and  not  original  discoverers  of  the  principles,  laws,  at- 
tributes, etc.,  of  existing  entities  and  phenomena.  Their 
object  is  not  to  discover,  but  to  acquire  a  correct 
knowledge  of  what  is  already  well  known  and  largely 
formulated,  and,  in  the  act  of  doing  this,  to  develop 
and  equip  their  minds  for  future  work.  To  accomplish 
these  three  ends  in  the  most  effective  manner,  pupils,  in 
the  sense  of  making  their  own  observations  and  per- 
forming their  own  experiments,  must  pursue  the  course 
of  original  investigators.  But  in  no  case  should  they 
be  allowed  to  waste  time  and  energy  in  making  obser- 
vations and  experiments  in  the  uncertain  regions  that 
must  largely  and  necessarily  occupy  the  time  and 
energy  of  original  discoverers.  It  is  the  imperative 
duty  of  teachers  to  guard  against  such  a  course.  They 
must  direct  the  self- effort  of  their  pupils  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  exclude  entirely  that  injurious  and  waste- 
ful line  of  work,  which  is  of  the  nature  of  "  Looking 
for  a  pin  in  a  haystack." 

ip).  Keeping  in  mind  the  facts  which  have  just  been 
stated  in  note  {a),  the  application  of  this  Principle 
requires  that  teaching  proper,  should  consist  chiefly, 
if  not  entirely,  of  supplying  the  following: 

(i).   Conditions  or  occasions  which  will  enable  pupils 


SPECIAL   PRIXCIPLES  OF   TEACHIXG.  I3I 

to  acquire  by  their  own  efforts  such  experiences  and 
knowledge  of  all  objective  entities  or  realities  with 
which  they  have  to  do,  as  these  entities  or  realities 
should  afford  theni,  at  the  time  they  are  investigated. 
It  should  here  be  observed  that  the  experiences  and 
knowledge  which  entities  and  realities  are  capable  of 
affording  are  not  to  be  exhaustively  acquired  at  any 
one  time.  The  extent  of  the  acquisition  that  should 
be  made  at  any  one  time  depends  upon  the  stage  of 
development  reached  by  the  pupils.  Hence  care  must 
be  exercised  by  teachers  not  to  attempt  to  force  their 
pupils  to  acquire  experiences  and  knowledge  which  lie 
beyond  the  natural  limits  of  their  development. 

(2).  Conditions  or  occasions  which  will  enable  pupils 
to  discover  for  themselves  so  much  of  the  truth,  and  of 
the  principles  and  laws  underlying  each  subject  studied, 
as  will  make  clear  and  real  all  of  the  elements  of  which 
each  subject  is  composed.  It  will  here  be  noted  that 
it  is  the  effort  to  discover  a  given  property,  principle 
or  law  that  gives  interest,  clearness  and  reality  to  the 
knowledge  acquired.  Hence  the  importance  of  insist- 
ing that  pupils  should  perform  so  much  of  this  kind  of 
work  as  is  necessary  to  secure  these  ends. 

(3).  Conditions  or  occasions  which  will  cause  pu- 
pils to  continue  thinking  and  reasoning  persistently 
upon  what  is  partially  or  imperfectly  known  to  them 
until  it  becomes  clearly  defined  in  their  minds.  Truths, 
principles,  laws,  etc.,  apprehended  imperfectly,  cr  in  a 
confused  manner,  constitute  one  of  the  gre  itest  hi-i- 
drances  to  the  successful   progress  of  pupils   in   their 


132  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

work.  Hence  time  is  lost  and  wasted  in  allowing  pu- 
pils to  pass  to  advanced  work  before  they  thoroughly 
comprehend  the  elementary  principles  on  which  the 
advanced  work  depends.  It  must  here  be  noted,  how- 
ever, that  this  thorough  mastery  of  elementary  princi- 
ples, before  passing  to  advanced  work,  does  not  mean 
that  kind  of  thoroughness  which  consists  in  mastering 
exhaustively  useless  details. 

(4).  Conditions  or  occasions  which  will  enable  and 
cause  pupils  to  arrange  and  perform  their  work  in  such 
order  as  will  place  them  in  possession,  when  their 
work  is  completed,  of  a  systematic  knowledge  of  the 
subject  studied.  This  will  require  a  very  careful  su- 
pervision, by  teachers,  of  every  step  of  the  work  of  the 
pupils.  It  means  system  in  the  performance  of  every 
step.  But  it  means  especially  that  pupils  should  be 
required,  at  regular  intervals,  by  careful  reflection,  in- 
dependent of  all  helps  from  books,  teachers,  or  other 
sources,  to  form  the  details  of  what  they  have  studied 
into  a  system  or  unit  which  they  are  to  hold  clearly 
and  vividly  in  their  minds  as  a  permanent  possession 
while  they  proceed  with  advanced  work. 

(5).  Conditions  or  occasions  which  will  enable  and 
cause  the  pupils  to  express  in  good  form  and  in  their 
own  language,  at  every  stage  of  their  progress,  the 
knowledge  they  acquire.  The  importance  of  this 
phase  of  the  pupils'  work  cannot  be  over  estimated. 
In  the  first  place,  no  mental  process  can  be  properly 
completed  until  its  products  can  be  correctly  ex- 
pressed in  oral  and  written  form.      But,   in  the  second 


SPECIAL   PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING.  1 33 

place,  no  other  acquirements  which  pupils  make  are 
in  such  constant  use  or  serve  such  important  ends  in 
their  life  work.  An  exact  use  of  language  is  an  im- 
portant help  in  all  mental  efforts  in  which  they 
engage. 

^"J.  The  mind  reproduces  or  recalls  its  former  states 
and  experiences  throngh  the  association  of  these  states 
and  experiences  with  zvhat  is  present  at  the  time  they 
are  to  he  recalled. 

(a).  The  proper  recognition  of  this  principle  in  im- 
parting instruction  is  of  first  importance.  Teachers 
may  be  successful  in  conditioning  their  pupils  so 
that  they  can  readily  gain  a  correct  and  clear  know- 
ledge of  the  subjects  studied,  and  yet,  at  the  same 
time,  fail  in  conditioning  them  so  that  the  knowledge 
acquired  is  made  a  permanent  possession,  that  can 
be  recalled  into  consciousness  whenever  required. 
This  failure  results  from  neglecting  to  supply  con- 
ditions, in  the  act  of  gaining  the  knowledge,  that 
will  necessitate  the  formation  of  sufficiently  strong 
and  varied  associations  to  serve  this  purpose.  These 
associations  consist  of  one  or  more  of  the  following, 
which  are  generally  known  as  laws  of  memory  : 

(i).  The  association  of  co-existence  in  time  or  being 
immediately  successive  in  time. 

(2).  Tiic  association  of  co-existence  in  space  or  being 
immediately  joined   in  space. 

(3).  The  association  of  dependence  upon  each  other, 
as  cause  and  effect,  as  means  and  end,  as  whole  and  part. 


134  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

(4).  The  association  of  contrast  or  similarity. 

(5).  The  association  of  the  sign  to  the  thing 
signified. 

The  following  suggestions  will  serve  to  indicate  the 
way  in  which  the  work  of  pupils  should  be  conducted 
in  order  that  these  laws  of  association  may  keep  con- 
stantly fresh  and  vivid  in  their  minds  the  experiences 
and  knowledge  acquired : 

{p).  The  pupil's  work  should  be  conducted  in  such 
a  manner  as  will  associate,  as  far  as  possible,  the 
knowledge  acquired  with  what  will  occur  in  the 
ordinary  experience  of  an  average    life. 

{c).  The  knowledge  of  facts,  principles,  laws  and 
processes  should  always  be  acquired  by  the  pupils 
through,  and  in  connection  with,  the  conditions  that 
will  actually  exist  when  such  knowledge  is  to  be  re- 
called for  use  in  after  life. 

id).  All  of  the  knowledge  and  experiences  of 
pupils  should,  in  the  act  of  acquiring  them,  be 
closely  associated  with  the  words  that  will  con- 
stitute the  working  vocabulary  of  the  pupils,  so  that 
they  may  be  constantly  recalled  by  the  use  of  these 
words  in  practical  life. 

{e).  In  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  a  language  its 
words  should,  as  far  as  possible,  be  closely  associated 
with  the  experiences  that  will  occur  in  the  daily  life 
of  the  pupils  and  with  the  words  of  their  mother 
tongue,  so  that  the  vocabulary  of  the  acquired  lan- 
guage may,  by  the  ordinary  occurrences  of  daily  life, 
be  kept  constantly  fresh  in  the  mind. 


MEANS    TO   BE    USED  /AT   TEACH/XG.  135 

MEANS  TO   BE   USED   IN   TEACHING. 

The  nature  of  the  work  to  be  performed  by  teach- 
ers has  already  been  fully  outlined  It  only  remains 
under  the  present  head  to  outline  the  means  that 
should  be  used  in  performing  this  work.  These  may 
be  grouped  under  four  heads ;  namely,  the  use  of 
special  arrangements  of  work,  the  use  of  illustrations, 
the  use  of  questions,  and  the  use  of  special  directions. 

6?>.  Teachers  sJioiild  eondition  tJicir  pupils  for  success- 
ful work  by  effective  arrangoncnts  of  the  matter  under 
investigation  and  of  methods  of  zvork. 

{a).  The  work  of  the  pupils  should  be  arranged  as  a 
whole,  and  each  daily  exercise  with  the  strictest  re- 
gard to  their  age,  mental  development  and  pecular  en- 
vironments. 

{b).  the  arrangement  of  matter  and  methods  of  work 
should,  in  every  case,  be  such  that  each  step,  when  per- 
formed, will  prepare  the  pupils  thoroughly  to  undertake 
the  step  immediately  following  with  the  least  possible 
aid  from  the  teacher. 

(t).  the  arrangement  of  matter  and  methods  of  work 
should  also  be  such  that,  in  the  act  of  performing  each 
step,  the  inquisitivcness  of  the  pupils  will  be  thoroughly 
roused  with  reference  to  what  is  still  in  advance  ;  in 
short,  should  be  such  as  will  leave  the  mind  dissatisfied 
with  its  present  knowledge  of  the  subject  under  con- 
sideration, and  will,  therefore,  create  a  thirst  for  farther 
light  and  clearer  and  more  extended  experiences. 


136  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

(d).  The  arrangement  of  matter  and  methods  of  work 
should  be  such  as  will  naturally  and  necessarily  prepare 
the  pupil's  mind  to  receive  and  understand  all  subjects 
in  advance  which  are  directly  related  to  or  dependeat 
upon  the  one  under  consideration. 

{e).  The  arrangement  of  matter  and  methods  of  work 
should  be  based  upOn  the  laws  of  association  given  in 
Art.  67  {a),  so  that  no  waste  of  mental  energy  will  be 
required  of  the  pupils  in  fixing  the  products  of  their 
own  efforts  in  the  memory  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  readily 
recalled  into  consciousness  in  their  integrity  when 
required. 

69.  Teachers  should  condition  their  pupils  for  success- 
ful work  by  the  use  of  illustrations  zvJiicJi  will  place  them 
in  a  position  to  understand  fully  and  readily  the  subject 
tender  consideration. 

{a).  The  object  of  every  illustration  should  be  to 
place  the  matter  under  consideration  in  such  relation  to 
the  minds  of  the  pupils  that  they  may  be  able  by  their 
own  effort  to  perform  the  work  assigned  to  them. 
When  illustrations  are  carried  beyond  this  point  they 
are  an  injury  to  the  pupils. 

{b).  All  illustrations  should  be  selected  from  what  is 
known  and  familiar  to  the  pupils ;  they  should  be  simple 
and  clear ;  they  should  be  new,  striking  and  forcible,  and 
they  should  be  presented  so  as  to  direct  attention  sharp- 
ly to  the  thing  illustrated. 

{c).  Illustrations  fail  entirely  of  serving  the  purposes 
for  which  they  should  be  used  when  they  are  of  such 


MEANS   TO   BE   USED  IN   TEACHING.  137 

a  nature,  and  are  presented  in  such  a  way,  as  to  fix  the 
attention  of  the  pupils  upon  the  illustrations  themselves 
rather  than  upon  the  points  to  be  made  plain  and  mem- 
orable by  their  use.  This,  however,  is  the  common 
result  when  complex  and  dazzling  illustrations  are  used, 
as  is  frequently  done  in  popular  lectures  upon  some  of 
the  natural  sciences. 

70.  Teachers  should  condition  their  pupils  for  success- 
ful work  by  the  use  of  pertinent  and  properly  .arranged 
questions. 

{a).  This  is  perhaps  the  most  important  means  by 
which  teachers  can  effectively  condition  their  pupils  for 
successful  work.  Questions  should  be  used  to  accom- 
plish three  distinct  ends :  namely,  to  Stimulate  or  gen- 
erate such  mental  activity  as  will  fit  the  pupils  to  enter 
with  pleasure  and  earnestness  upon  the  work  to  be 
performed;  to  Develop  or  place  the  minds  of  the  pupils 
in  effective  working  relations  to  what  they  have  to  do 
and  to  guide  them  in  rightly  doing  it ;  to  Test  or  ascer- 
tain if  subjects  which  the  pupils  have  considered  are 
clearly  understood  and  made  a  permanent  possession. 
In  accomplishing  successfully  these  ends  the  questions 
used  and  the  method  of  using  them  should  be  some- 
what different  in  each  case.  Stimulating  questions,  for 
example,  need  not  necessarily  be  directed  to  the  sub- 
ject in  hand.  The  object  to  be  gained  by  such  ques- 
tions is  to  produce  that  mental  excitation  without  which 
the  minds  of  the  pupils  cannot  be  put  in  effective  work- 
ing relations  to  the  matter  to  be  considered.     On  the 


138  PRINCIPLES   OF  EDUCATION. 

Other  hand,  development  questions  must  invariably  have 
their  origin  in  the  subject  under  consideration  and,  also, 
must  have  direct  reference  to  the  present  efforts  of  the 
pupils.  But,  again,  testing  questions  should  take  a 
broader  range  than  development  questions.  They  are 
intended  not  only  to  test  how  well  the  pupils  have 
mastered  the  subject  in  hand,  but  also  how  well  they 
retain  the  products  of  their  previous  efforts  and  utilize 
them  in  the  work  in  their  present  effort.  The  follow- 
ing brief  propositions  present,  in  a  general  way,  the 
nature,  origin,  purpose  and  order  of  questions  to  be 
used  as  means  in  the  art  of  teaching. 

(i).  Questions  should  be  asked  in  such  a  manner 
and  should  be  of  such  a  nature  as  to  stimulate  the 
pupils  to  question  themselves,  and  to  put  forth  such 
efforts  as  may  be  necessary  to  master  the  subjects  under 
consideration  without  assistance  from  outside  sources. 

(2).  Each  question  asked  should  originate  in  a  pres- 
ent and  conscious  weakness  or  difficulty  of  the  pupil 
which  is  clearly  perceived  by  the  teacher. 

(3).  Each  question  asked  should  be  so  expressed 
and  so  directed  to  the  pupil's  weakness  or  difficulty  as 
to  render  the  help  absolutely  necessary  in  view  of  the 
pupil's  present  condition. 

(4).  Each  question  asked  should  be  short  and  free 
from  ambiguity. 

(5).  The  order  which  should  be  pursued  in  asking 
questions  should  always  be  determined  by  the  condi- 
tion of  the  pupil's  mind  with  reference  to  the  result  to 
be  secured. 


MEANS    TO  BE    USED  I.V   TEACHING.  139 


{b).  It  should  here  be  carefully  noted  that  the  ques- 
tions that  are  to  be  used,  as  a  means  of  properly  con- 
ditioning pupils  for  their  work,  are  not  all  to  be  asked 
by  the  teachers.  The  pupils  should  be  questioners  quite 
as  much  as  the  teachers.  Indeed,  until  pupils  can  ask 
intelligent  questions  upon  the  subjects  under  consider- 
ation, they  give  no  clear  evidence  that  they  properly 
understand  these  subjects.  But  more,  until  they  can 
question  themselves  closely  upon  every  subject  of 
study,  they  have  not  acquired  the  true  power  or  art  of 
studying.  Hence  it  follows  that  teachers  should  en- 
courage their  pupils,  in  every  way  possible,  to  form 
the  habit  of  sharp  self-questioning,  as  a  means  of  solving 
and  explaining  difficulties  and  of  gaining  clear  views  of 
subjects  studied. 

7 1 .  Teachers  should  condition  their  pupils  for  snccess- 
ful  zoork  by  giving  them  such  specific  directions  or  sug- 
gestions as  zuill  protect  from  luaste  of  time  and  energy 
in  wrong  directions. 

{a).  The  proper  use  of  this  means  in  the  teacher's 
work  is  very  important.  It  is  difficult,  however,  to  de- 
termine always  just  when  it  is  right  and  best  to  give 
specific  directions  to  pupils  in  the  act  of  teaching.  Yet 
the  course  indicated  by  the  often- repeated  motto, 
"  Never  tell  pupils  what  they  can  find  out  for  them- 
selves," is,  to  say  the  least,  very  unwise.  When  this 
course  is  pursued  rigorously  great  injustice  is  done  to 
pupils.  In  many  cases  it  results  in  complete  discour- 
agement and    entire  neglect  of  self-effort  in   perform- 


I40  PRINCIPLES   OF  EDUCATION. 


ing  the  work  assigned.  Difficulties  which  should  be 
solved,  because  of  their  importance  in  advanced  work, 
arc  passed  over  untouched.  Pupils  in  such  circum- 
stances content  themselves  with  doing  what  is  on  the 
surface  and  can  be  performed  with  the  least  possible 
degree  of  self-effort. 

{It).  In  the  matter  of  giving  specific  directions  or 
suggestions,  the  true  motto  should  be  :  Tell  pupils  just 
what  will  save  thcin  from  a  wasteful  application  of 
time  and  energy  in  finding  out  for  themselves  what  has 
little  if  any  value  in  promoting  true  self-dcvelopnicnt 
and  self-equipment.  In  practically  applying  this  motto 
great  care  must  be  taken  not  to  tell  what  pupils  should 
find  out  for  themselves.  The  following  propositions 
indicate  the  lines  in  which  telling  is  admissable  : 

(i).  Specific  directions  or  suggestions  should  be  giv- 
en to  pupils  only  for  the  purpose  of  placing  them  in  a 
proper  attitude  or  condition  to  perform  the  work  re- 
quired by  the  exercise  of  their  own  power. 

(2).  Such  directions  or  suggestions  should  never  be 
in  the  form  of  specific  rides  which  the  pupils  are  re- 
quired to  follow  blindly  in  performing  their  work. 

(3).  Such  directions  or  suggestions  should  simply 
point  out  to  the  pupils  fust  where  and  just  how  they 
can,  by  self-effort,  find  the  objects  of  their  search  or 
master  the  difficulties  which  they  encounter. 

(4).  Such  directions  or  suggestions  should  always  be 
such  as  will  confine  the  pupils  strictly  to  the  line  of 
self-effort  which  will  best  secure  the  definite  results 
and  the  general  ends  for  which  they  are  working. 


MEANS   rO  BE    USED  IN   TEACHING.  I4I 

{c).  Here  it  should  be  noted  that  in  many,  perhaps 
exceptional  cases,  pupils  should  be  placed  in  possession, 
in  the  most  direct  manner,  of  information  vv'iich  it  is 
quite  possible  for  them  to  gain  without  any  help  from  any 
source,  but  in  doing  so  they  would  waste  much  valua- 
ble time  without  receiving  any  corresponding  benefit. 
Of  this  sort  is  information,  in  the  study  of  languages, 
in  regard  to  special  forms  of  words  and  constructions 
which  are  only  of  very  rare  occurrence  ;  of  this  sort  also 
is  information  in  regard  to  exceptional  devices  and 
contrivances  by  which  alone  certain  results  can  be  suc- 
cessfully reached  in  the  study  of  Mathematics,  Natural 
Sciences,  etc.  In  all  cases  of  this  kind  information 
should  be  given  to  pupils  at  once.  Not  to  do  so 
is  a  great  mistake. 

72.  Only  such  teachers  as  possess  substantially  the 
following  qualifications  can  use  sncccssfiilly  the  fore- 
going means  in  their  classroom  zvork  : 

{a).  Teachers,  to  do  effective  work  in  the  classroom, 
must  possess  a  correct  and,  in  a  certain  sense,  exhaust- 
ive knowledge  of  the  subjects  on  which  they  give  in- 
struction, and  also  of  subjects  on  which  these  are  de- 
pendent. They  must  also  possess  a  correct  knowledge 
of  the  present  attainments  of  their  pupils,  their  present 
and  past  environments,  and  of  the  connection  which 
the  subjects  under  consideration  sustain  to  the  knowl- 
edge previously  acquired. 

{b).  Teachers,  to  do  effective  work,  must  make 
special  preparation  on  each  subject  before  attempting 


142  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 


to  present  it  in  class.  They  must  note  with  great  care 
the  root  thoughts  in  each  lesson  around  which  details 
are  naturally  grouped  ;  they  must  analyze  the  subject 
to  be  presented  into  separate,  dependent  parts  or  units 
adapted  to  the  pupils  in  class  ;  they  must  prepare  per- 
tinent illustrations  by  which  each  step  in  the  lesson  can 
be  presented  properly  to  the  class,  and  they  must  fix 
in  their  own  minds,  definitely  and  clearly,  the  results 
they  propose,  in  class,  to  fix  in  the  minds  of  their  pu- 
pils. 

(r).  Teachers  should  possess  the  power  of  holding 
vividly  in  their  minds,  while  in  the  act  of  conducting 
their  classes,  the  results  which  they  seek  to  secure,  and 
the  general  course  the  pupils  must  pursue  in  reaching 
these  results.  This  power  is  largely  the  product  of  con- 
stant practice  in  making  analyses  and  in  forming  de- 
scriptions, definitions,  etc.,  not  by  recalling  the  words 
of  another,  but  from  the  pictures  held  in  consciousness 
of  the  things  analyzed,  described  or  defined.  When 
this  course  is  persistently  followed  it  will  develop,  in 
time,  the  power  of  forming  vivid  mind-pictures  of 
everything  undertaken. 

{d).  The  teacher  should  possess  the  power  of  in- 
venting simple  and  pertinent  illustrations,  at  the  time 
they  are  required  in  class,  which  will  call  into  service 
the  present  knowledge  of  the  pupils,  and  hence  place 
them  in  a  position  to  understand  the  difficulties  en- 
countered and  to  perform  the  required  work.  The 
exercise  of  this  power  depends  upon  the  abihty  of 
teachers    to  perceive    quickly   and    clearly,  while  per- 


THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  SCHOOLS.  143 

forming  their  work,  the  difficulties  in  the  minds  of  the 
pupils  in  reference  to  the  results  sought  to  be  secured. 

THE   MANAGEMENT   OF    SCHOOLS. 

The  right  management  of  a  school  constitutes  one 
of  the  most  important  conditions  which  can  be  supplied 
for  the  development  of  true  character.  By  right  man- 
agement, however,  is  not  meant  a  mechanical  system 
of  rules,  false  incentives,  reports,  rewards  and  punish- 
ments, and  other  devices  by  which  good  order  may  be 
maintained.  These,  if  they  have  any  place  in  a  rightly- 
managed  school,  should  be  used  very  sparingly  and  with 
much  caution.  Good  order  is  important,  and  should 
certainly  be  maintained,  but  it  should  never  be  re- 
garded as  the  chief  end  to  be  secured  in  school  man- 
agement. The  following  brief  outline  indicates  the 
leading  principles  which  should  guide  teachers  in  this 
important  department  of  their  work. 

'j}^.  The  management  of  every  sehool  should  be  eon- 
ducted  in  sueJi  a  manner  as  to  constitute  a  definite 
and  thorough  course  of  instruction  and  practice  in 
self-goverfiment. 

{a).  No  acquirement  which  pupils  make  is  more  valu- 
able in  after  life  than  the  power  of  self-government. 
This  is  very  pointedly  indicated  in  Prov.  xvi.,  32  :  "  He 
that  is  slow  to  anger  is  better  than  the  mighty  ;  and 
he  that  ruleth  his  spirit  than  he  that  taketii  a  city "; 
and    also  in   Prov.  xxv.,  28  :   *'  He    that    hath  no   rule 


144  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

over  his  own  spirit  is  like  a  city  that  is  broken  down 
and  without  walls."  The  importance  of  making  the 
management  of  schools  effective  instruments  in  the  de- 
velopment of  self-government  cannot  therefore  be  over- 
estimated. 

(/;).  Intellectual  power  and  right  intellectual  habits 
are  best  acquired  in  the  act  of  pursuing  a  prescribed 
course  of  study.  This  is  universally  conceded  ;  hence 
the  care  with  which  courses  of  study  are  arranged  for 
this  purpose.  Moral  power  and  right  moral  habits  are 
acquired  precisely  in  the  same  way.  Instruction,  for 
example,  in  the  principles  of  geometry,  in  the  absence 
of  actual  practice  in  demonstrating  these  principles, 
would  fail  utterly  in  developing  mental  power;  in  like 
manner,  instructions  given  to  pupils  in  the  principles 
of  self-government  are  of  no  avail  unless  the  right 
opportunity  is  given  for  the  practice  of  these  principles. 
Hence  the  management  of  ev'cry  school  should  be  so 
conducted  as  to  give  to  the  pupils  this  practice. 

(r).  To  accomplish  in  a  proper  manner  the  end  just 
stated  in  {b)  means  that  the  pupils  shall  be  assigned 
work  in  self-government  just  as  regularly  and  definitely 
as  in  arithmetic,  grammar,  geography,  algebra,  etc.  It 
means,  also,  that  the  work  assigned  for  this  purpose 
shall  be  riglitly  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  pupils,  as 
already  fully  explained  in  Art.  56.  Infants  in  years, 
or  in  moral  development,  must  not  be  asked  to  perform 
the  work  which  requires  the  power  and  judgment  of 
mature  manhood.  But,  while  this  is  true,  it  is  equally 
true  that  each   must  be  assigned  this  kind  of  work,  as 


THE  MA.VAGEMEiVT  OF  SCHOOLS.  145 

only  in  the  act  of  governing  self  can  the  power  of  self- 
government  be  acquired.  It  is  in  the  act  of  using  the 
reason,  the  conscience  and  the  will  in  directing  the 
conduct  of  self  and  of  others  that  these  faculties  are 
rightly  developed  and  are  placed  in  full  control  of  the 
entire  being. 

74.  The  teachers  mid  pupils  should  be  co-partners 
in  the  mauagemcnt  of  schools,  and  their  relation  to 
each  other  in  this  zvork  should  be  controlled  by  the 
following  general  principles  : 

{a).  The  Golden  Rule,  "  As  ye  would  that  men 
should  do  to  you,  do  ye  also  to  them  likewise,"  should 
be  the  standard  by  which  to  judge  the  right  or  the 
wrong  of  every  action. 

(b).  The  highest  good  of  the  individual,  so  far  as  this 
is  compatible  with  the  highest  good  of  the  whole  school, 
should  be  a  fundamental  principle  in  determining  what 
courses  of  action  can  be  legitimately  allowed  upon  the 
part  of  teachers  or  pupils. 

{c).  No  requirement  should  be  made  of  any  pupil 
which  would  not  be  right,  under  similar  circumstances, 
to  make  of  every  pupil  in  the  school. 

(d).  The  spirit  in  which  everything  is  done  should 
always  be  considered  more  important  than  the  form, 
and  hence  should  be  regarded,  both  by  teachers  and 
pupils,  in  forming  a  judgment  of  the  character  and 
value  of  every  act. 

(e).  From  the  very  nature  of  the  relation  between 
teachers  and  pupils,  the  teachers  must  always   be  con- 


146  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

sidered  the  proper  judges  of  what  is  to  be  viewed, 
under  any  given  circumstances,  as  right  or  wrong. 
The  judgment  of  the  pupils  must,  however,  be  care- 
fully consulted,  and,  before  making  a  final  decision 
in  any  given  case,  all  the  circumstances  in  any  way 
affecting  the  case  must  be  fully  canvassed. 

(/).  The  relations  of  teachers  and  pupils  are  such 
as  to  involve  a  pledge,  on  the  part  of  both,  to  regard 
the  interest  of  each  other  as  sacred,  which  pledge  should 
always  be  assumed  as  given  when  pupils  enter  a  school. 

75.  TJie  course  of  training  in  sclf-goverjiment  should 
include  such  privileges,  restrictions  and  requirements 
as  will  gire  the  reason,  the  conscience,  and  the  will  the 
exercise  necessary  for  their  proper  development. 

{a).  The  privileges,  restrictions  and  requirements 
used  in  school  management  should  invariably  be 
assigned  to  the  pupils  as  a  part  of  the  course  of 
instruction  and  practice  through  which  they  must  pass 
in  accomplishing  their  own  self-development  and  self- 
equipment.  The  pupils  should,  therefore,  be  led  to 
regard  these  lines  of  effort  in  the  same  light  as  their 
work  in  literary  and  other  subjects.  Privileges, 
restrictions  and  requirements  should  in  no  case  be 
presented  to  the  pupils  in  the  form  of  a  body  of  rules, 
which  they  must  rigidly  obey,  or  else  forfeit  the  con- 
fidence of  their  teachers,  and  perhaps  subject  them- 
selves to  some  form  of  punishment.  Such  a  treatment 
of  pupils  is  entirely  wrong,  and  necessarily  inflicts 
upon  them  permanent  injury. 


THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  SCHOOLS.  147 

(b).  Privileges  are  an  important  element  in  develop- 
ing the  power  of  self-government.  They  constitute 
one  of  the  best  tests  that  can  be  used  to  determine  the 
trustworthiness  of  pupils.  They  must,  however,  be 
judiciously  granted  and  carefully  graded,  according  to 
the  ability  of  pupils  to  use  them  rightly.  They  should 
also  be  gradually  extended  just  as  the  moral  strength 
of  the  pupils  will  warrant.  In  doing  this,  however, 
the  privileges  granted  must  be  such  as  are  strictly  in 
accordance  with  acknowledged  principles  of  right,  and 
such  as  can  be  given  to  every  pupil  under  similar 
circumstances ;  and  such  also  as  will  promote  in  the 
best  manner  the  objects  for  which  the  pupils  are  in 
school. 

{c).  Restrictions  of  a  certain  kind  are  a  necessity  in 
school  management,  aside  from  their  special  use  in 
promoting  self-government.  They  should  all,  however, 
be  made  to  contribute,  as  far  as  possible,  to  this  latter 
purpose.  This  can  only  be  done  to  the  extent  they 
become  voluntary.  Involuntary  restrictions  may  an- 
swer, in  an  imperfect  way,  the  end  of  maintaining 
order,  but  they  fail  entirely  in  developing  the  power 
of  self-government.  Indeed,  they  have  the  opposite 
effect.  Pupils  who  are  always  kept  orderly  by  the 
force  of  conditions  which  they  are  unable  to  resist 
must  gradually  lose  the  power  of  self-control,  and  be- 
come even  untrustworthy  when  the  restraints  by  which 
they  are  held  are  removed.  Hence  it  is  the  impera- 
tive duty  of  teachers  to  avoid  imposing  restrictions 
which  well-disposed  pupils  cannot  voluntarily  accept  as 


14^  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

necessary  to  promote  the  best  interests  of  the  school  as 
a  whole. 

{d).  Judicious  teachers,  possessed  of  tact,  can  readily 
get  their  pupils  voluntarily  to  impose  upon  themselves 
just  as  severe  restrictions  as  may  be  necessary  to  main- 
tain the  best  of  order,  and,  at  the  same  time,  test  and 
develop  successfully  the  power  of  self-contol.  Severe 
restrictions  are  very  important  for  this  latter  pur- 
pose. Self-control  of  the  highest  order  can  be  ac- 
quired only  under  severe  conditions.  But  these  condi- 
tions, to  be  effective  in  promoting  this  end,  must  be 
self-imposed.  They  must  also  be  reached  by  a  gradual 
process  of  development.  At  first,  restrictions  imposed 
should  be  such  as  will  require  no  strained  effort  upon 
the  part  of  the  pupils  to  comply  with  them.  They 
should,  however,  be  made  gradually  more  difficult, 
just  as  rapidly  as  the  pupils  gain  the  necessary 
strength. 

if).  Special  practice  should  be  given  in  this  line. 
Gymnastic  and  military  drill  serve  a  good  purpose  in 
acquiring  one  kind  of  self-control.  But  such  exercises 
have  little  value  in  developing  that  self-control  which 
directs  the  inner  workings  of  the  mind,  which,  for  ex- 
ample, puts  under  perfect  subjection  the  unruly  tend- 
encies of  the  passions.  For  this  purpose  a  higher 
order  of  exercises  than  gymnastics  or  military  drill 
must  be  provided.  Pupils  must  gain  this  kind  of 
self-control  by  voluntarily  submitting  themselves  to 
proper,  but  severe,  restrictions  in  special  lines  of 
conduct     The  restrictions  imposed    for   this   purpose 


THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  SCHOOLS.  149 

should,  in  every  case,  be  such  as  are  in  perfect  har- 
mony with  the  principles  of  right ;  such  as  the  pupils 
can  readily  see  will  assist  them  in  acquiring  the  power 
of  self  control  ;  such  also  as  necessarily  grow  out  of  a 
sympathetic  relation  between  the  pupils  and  their 
teachers,  and  such  as  will  do  no  violence  to  any  phase 
of  the  inherent  and  natural  rights  of  the  pupils. 

(/").  Restrictions  are  chiefly  negative  in  their  nat- 
ure, and  hence  train  the  pupils  specially  in  the  exer- 
cise of  self-denial.  They  have,  however,  a  positive 
side  also.  Not  to  do,  under  certain  circumstances,  is  to 
gain  the  ability  to  do  the  opposite  of  what  may  be 
very  agreeable  and  even  strongly  pressed  upon  us. 
This  kind  of  training  is  important.  Yet  it  is  one- 
sided and  defective  unless  supplemented  by  a  wide 
range  of  positive  requirements.  The-e  should  include 
not  only  the  duties  which  pupils  owe  to  themselves,  but 
also  the  duties  and  obligations  which  they  owe  to 
others.  Selfishness  is  a  deeply-rooted  principle  of  hu- 
man nature.  The  exercise,  therefore,  of  self-control 
under  the  influence  of  this  prijiciple  may  be  an  easy 
matter,  while  very  difficult  when  selfishness  must  be 
set  aside  in  the  interests  of  others.  Hence  special  at- 
tention should  be  given  in  the  management  of  schools 
to  making  requirements  of  pupils  that  will  develop 
in  them  such  a  power  of  self-control  and  sympathy  for 
others  as  will  fit  them  to  discharge  effectively  the  du- 
ties and  responsibilities  that  will  come  to  them  in 
connection  with  the  trying  relations  and  experiences 
of  an  active  life. 


150  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 


THE   TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS. 

The  work  of  teachers,  as  already  pointed  out, 
includes  whatever  is  necessary  to  be  done  to 
develop  and  equip  every  phase  of  the  nature  of  their 
pupils.  Hence  the  training  of  teachers,  if  properly 
accomplished,  must  cover  each  of  the  qualifications 
required  for  the  right  discharge  of  the  duties  and 
responsibilities  which  the  nature  and  extent  of  this 
work  impose.  The  following  brief  outline  calls  atten- 
tion to  the  course  of  instruction  and  practice  by  which 
these  qualifications  can,  ordinarily,  be  best  acquired  : 

NATURE   OF  TRAINING   WORK. 

^6.  Teaching  is,  in  a  marked  sense,  an  art  as  well  as 
a  science.  This  fact  must  be  fully  recognized  in  every 
well-directed  effort  to  train  teachers  for  their  work. 

(a).  All  training  must  be  based  upon  the  assump- 
tion of  the  possession  of  a  minimum  of  natural 
ability ;  but,  whatever  the  natural  ability  pos- 
sessed may  be,  persistent  practice,  under  the 
guidance  of  competent  instructors,  is  the  only 
sure  course  to  attain,  with  the  least  expenditure 
of  time  and  effort,  the  full  mastery  of  self,  and  of  the 
principles  and  processes  of  the  special  work  for  which  the 
teacher  is  preparing.  Artisans  and  artists  alike  recognize 
the  truth  of  this  position,  hence  the  practical  courses 
of  training  to  which  they  submit  themselves.  The 
training  of  teachers  rightly  conducted  must  follow  in 


XATURE   OF   TRAIXING    WORK.  15  • 

the  same  line.  The  teacher  acquires  the  ability  to  do 
successful  work,  just  as  the  artisan  or  artist  docs,  by 
persistent  practice  under  favorable  conditions. 

(b).  Thejntclligcnt  and  practical  study  of  the  science 
of  education  should  be  based  upon  at  least  a  limited 
experience  in  the  art  of  teaching.  To  know  aright  we 
must  do.  "  If  any  man  will  do  his  will,  he  shall  know 
of  the  doctrine."  This  principle  is  now  universally  re- 
cognized as  of  first  importance  in  the  study  of  the 
natural  sciences.  It  is,  however,  doubly  important  in 
the  study  of  those  sciences  in  which  the  art  ox  pon'cr  to 
do  is  the  outcome  sought  in  the  examination  of  every 
principle.  Professional  instruction,  therefore,  in  the 
principles  and  practices  of  good  teaching  can  be  given 
in  a  rational  and  effective  manner,  only  as  it  is  based 
upon  some  previous  experience,  and  is  carried  on  hand 
in  hand  with  actual  practice  in  the  class-room. 

77.  The  instruction  and  practice  given  in  a  properly  ar- 
ranged teachers'  training  course  should  cover  substantially 
every  line  of  work  for  ivhieh  the  student  is  preparing. 

(a).  It  is  not  necessary  that  instruction  and  practice 
should  be  given  in  every  possible  subject  students  may 
have  to  teach  after  they  have  completed  their  training 
course.  There  are  general  principles  and  practices 
which,  when  thoroughly  mastered,  can  be  applied 
equally  well  to  the  teaching  of  an  entire  group  of  allied 
subjects,  as,  for  example,  languages  or  the  natural 
sciences.  While  this  is  true,  it  must,  however,  be  care- 
fully noted,  that  the  instruction   and   practice   given  in 


152  PRINCIPLES   OF  EDUCATION. 

each  group  of  subjects  must  provide  fully  for  the 
modifications  of  these  general  principles,  which  the 
teachers  under  training  will  have  to  make  to  adapt 
their  instruction  to  the  actual  condition  of  _jheir  future 
pupils.  These  pupils  will  vary  in  age,  environments, 
capacity,  natural  and  acquired  receptivity  and  energy, 
and  habits  of  application  to  mental  work.  These 
variations  must,  therefore,  be  taken  fully  into  account 
in  the  work  done  in  the  training  course.  The  training 
that  may  fit  a  teacher  to  do  excellent  work  in  the 
higher  mathematics  may  fail  entirely  to  give  the  right 
preparation  for  doing  good  work  in  intermediate  and 
primary  classes.  Hence  the  teachers  under  training 
must  be  graded  and  receive  instruction  and  practice  in 
the  lines  which  they  themselves  must  follow  in  grading 
the  pupils  they  are  preparing  to  teach. 

(h).  Ability  to  teach,  as  commonly  understood,  is 
only  one,  and  perhaps  not  the  most  important,  qualifi- 
cation of  good  teachers.  This  qualification  fits  them 
chiefly  to  impart  knowledge  to  their  pupils  in  a  natural 
and  effective  manner.  This  is  important  and  well,  but 
the  most  important  function  of  true  teachers  is  to 
impart  character,  true  manhood,  true  womanhood,  to 
their  pupils.  Where  this  is  not  done,  the  knowledge 
imparted  may  prove  a  snare  and  a  curse  to  its  re- 
cipients ;  hence,  in  the  training  of  teachers,  chief  stress 
should  be  placed  upon  supplying  conditions  that  will 
develop  the  moral  and  spiritual  sides  of  their  natures, 
and  will  also  give  them  the  power  to  produce  in  their 
own  pupils  the  same  results. 


NATURE   OF   TRAINING    WORK,  153 


(c).  The  moral  and  spiritual  training  of  teachers 
must  be  conducted  substantially  in  the  same  manner 
as  already  indicated  for  other  parts  of  the  training 
work.  The  discussion  of  principles  of  right  living, 
home  life,  school  government,  etc.,  must  be  conducted 
hand  in  hand  with  actual  practice.  This  will  require 
that  the  students  under  training  should  be  made  re- 
sponsible for  every  detail  of  the  management  of  the 
practice  school.  It  will  also  require  that  they 
should  be  placed  in  the  same  relations  to  the 
classes  they  teach  as  they  will  sustain  after- 
wards to  classes  in  their  own  schools.  In  ad- 
dition to  this  they  must  have  actual  instruction 
and  practice  in  giving  moral  and  Bible  lessons,  and  be 
held  responsible  for  conducting  themselves  before  the 
school  as  consistently,  in  every  respect,  as  the  regular 
training-school  teachers. 

78.  A  properly  conducted  teachers'  training  course 
must  provide  appliances  and  conditions  that  will  rigJitly 
i>romote  the  development  and  study  of  self,  and  also  the 
study  of  the  principles  and  laivs  ivhich  determine  the 
symmetrical  development  of  the  infant,  the  child,  the 
youth  and  the  man. 

(a).  Self-knowledge  and  self-control  are  among  the 
most  essential  qualifications  of  a  successful  teacher  and 
school-manager.  Without  these,  scholarship  and  other 
important  qualifications  will  necessarily  fail  to  be  effect- 
ively utilized.  Hence,  in  the  training  course,  special 
attention   must  be   given   to   this  phase  of   the   work. 


154  PRINCIPLES  OF  education: 


The  maxim  "  Man,  know  thyself "  must  be  insisted 
upon.  And  to  this  end,  each  teacher  must  be  con- 
ditioned so  as  to  make  self-study  a  necessity. 

{b).  Self-study  may  be  promoted  in  various  ways. 
Among  these  may  be  named  the  free  discussion  in 
class  of  typical  cases,  and  the  assignment  of  work  to 
the  students  which  will  expose  defects  and  weaknesses, 
and  also  bring  to  light  elements  of  strength  and  effect- 
iveness. In  these  class  discussions,  while  carefully 
avoiding  personalities,  the  typical  cases  considered  and 
analyzed  must  place  before  the  members  of  the  class, 
as  in  a  mirror,  such  true  representations  of  themselves 
as  cannot  fail  to  be  recognized.  The  work  assigned  to 
promote  the  study  of  self  must  be  carefully  adjusted 
to  the  actual  condition  and  needs  of  each  student. 
Here  the  object  is  to  confront  each  student  with  such 
conditions  as  will  necessitate  such  a  correct  knowledge 
of  self  as  must  be  had  in  order  effectively  to  remove 
defects  and  develop  right  teaching  and  managing 
power. 

(c).  Teaching  and  managing  power  is  largely  de- 
pendent upon  the  ability  of  the  teacher  to  assume  in 
a  true  sense  the  place  of  the  pupil.  "  Put  yourself  in 
his  place  "  is  a  maxim  that  must  be  followed  in  all 
successful  school  work.  Hence,  in  the  training  course, 
special  stress  must  be  placed  upon  this  phase  of  work. 
The  students  under  training  must  be  required  to 
analyze  and  trace  with  accuracy  their  own  personal 
experience  in  the  act  of  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  the 
various  subjects  they  are  preparing  to  teach,   and  also 


NATURE    OF   TRAINIXG    WORK.  1 55 

the  conditions  and  experiences  through  which  they 
have  acquired  mental  power,  right  habits,  and  pure  and 
elevated  tastes.  They  must  also  be  required  to  analyze 
and  trace  in  the  same  manner  the  experiences  through 
which  they  have  passed  in  every  step  of  their  moral 
and  spiritual  development,  and  in  the  formation  of 
their  present  character.  This  process  of  retrospection 
and  constant  self-examination  in  the  act  of  traininef 
teachers  cannot  be  too  strongly  insisted  upon,  as  it  is 
the  chief  exercise  by  w:ach  they  are  qualified  to  place 
themselves  in  sympathetic  and  helpful  working  rela- 
tions to  their  pupils. 

(d').  "The  study  of  man  is  man"  expresses  a  truth 
which  must  be  carefully  heeded  in  the  training  of 
teachers.  The  study  of  books  on  psychology  and  on 
the  science  and  art  of  teaching  is  valuable  and  sugges- 
tive when  the  student  is  properly  prepared  for  such 
study.  This  study,  however,  cannot  take  the  place,  in 
the  training  of  teachers,  of  the  study  of  the  living 
specimens.  By  the  study  of  books  familiarity  may  be 
acquired  with  what  others  have  said  on  the  nature  and 
•constitution  of  man,  but  this  will  fail  to  cultivate  in 
teachers  what  will  serve  them  best  in  dealing  with 
their  pupils.  Instead  of  being  satisfied  with  fine  de- 
scriptions of  other  men's  observations,  they  must 
acquire  the  power,  the  tastes,  and  the  habits  which 
will  enable  them  to  make  for  themselves  the  very  ob- 
servations on  which  these  descriptions  are  based. 
This  is  the  training  teachers  need.  They  must  study 
for    themselves,    under  the    guidance    of    experienced 


156  PRINCIPLES   OF  EDUCATION. 

leaders,  the  living  specimens — the  infant,  the  child,  the 
youth  and  the  man.  These  must  be  studied  in  their 
normal  state,  amid  the  various  changes  and  conditions 
through  which  they  pass  in  the  process  of  develop- 
ment.* This  is  the  kind  of  training  that  will  place 
teachers  in  intimate  and  living  relations  to  their  pupils, 
that  will  give  them  the  power  of  perceiving  quickly 
and  clearly  the  real  condition  of  the  minds  of  their 
pupils,  and  hence  will  enable  them  rightly  to  adapt 
both  instruction  and  management  to  this  condition. 

teachers'  training  course. 

The  nature  and  extent  of  a  teachers'  training  course 
must  depend  upon  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  work 
for  which  the  training  is  to  be  given.  Hence,  before 
outlining  ?  course,  it  is  necessary  to  recall  some  of 
what  has  already  been  said  on  the  true  nature  of 
education  and  of  the  teacher's  work. 

79.  The  process  of  education  has  been  defined  in 
Art.  3  as  that  by  zahich  external  conditio)is  or  appliances 
are  made  by  the  action  of  an  agent  the  means  of  un- 
folding or  developing  symmetrically  all  the  legitimate 
possibilities  of  a  single  life. 

{a).  Accepting  this  definition  as  substantially  correct, 
the  process  of  education  involves  three  elements  : 
namely,  the  pupil  or  party  developed,  the  conditions 
or  appliances  by  which  the  development  is  effected, 
and  the  teacher  or  agent  who  directs    the  process  of 


TEACHERS'    TRAIXING   COURSE.  157 

development.  Each  of  these  three  elements  has  been 
already  fully  discussed.  Here  it  is  only  necessary  to 
note  that  the  possibilities  in  pupils  are  of  four  kinds : 
namely,  pliysical,  intellectual,  moral  and  spiritual,  and 
that  conditions  and  appliances  for  the  harmonious 
development  of  all  these  possibilities  must  be  supplied 
by  the  teacher.  Hence  the  training  imparted  must 
provide  for  this  fourfold  work. 

(b).  Here  it  must  also  be  carefully  noted  that  the 
symmetrical  development  of  the  four  classes  of  possi- 
bilities in  the  pupil's  nature  is  not  the  result,  as  is 
very  commonly  supposed,  of  knowledge  imparted  by 
the  teacher  or  acquired  from  any  other  source.  The 
acquisition  of  knowledge  is  but  a  small  element  in  the 
development  of  character  or  true  manhood  or  true 
womanhood.  A  symmetrical  character  of  the  highest 
order  is  the  product  of  a  pure  body,  inhabited  by  a 
rightly  developed  intellect,  accompanied  by  right 
habits  and  pure  and  elevated  tastes,  and  the  whole 
subordinate  to  the  control  of  a  rightly  developed 
moral  and  spiritual  nature.  Such  a  character,  or  any 
approximation  to  it,  is  not  the  product  of  acquired 
knowledge.  It  is  a  growth  which  takes  place  in  the 
presence  of  surroundings  and  conditions  embodying 
the  very  elements  of  which  it  is  composed.  Just  as 
life  comes  from  life,  so  character  comes  from  char- 
acter. To  supply  the  surroundings  and  conditions 
that  will  enable  pupils  to  approximate,  as  nearly 
as  possible,  to  such  a  character,  is  the  special 
work  of    all    true    teachers.       For    this    work,    there- 


158  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

fore,  their  training  course    should    thoroughly  prepare 
them. 

{c).  The  lines  of  work  by  which  this  preparation  can 
be  best  effected  may  be  classified  under  the  following 
heads,  namely  :  Physical  Training,  Academic  or  Intel- 
lectual Training,  Moral  and  Spiritual  Training,  and  Pro- 
fessional Training.  Each  of  these  lines  of  work,  in 
order  to  afford  the  right  preparation  for  teaching,  must 
be  conducted,  step  by  step,  with  special  and  constant 
reference  to  this  end.  The  great  object  to  be  accom- 
plished in  a  training  course  is  to  discover  clearly  to  the 
persons  under  training  the  processes,  conditions  and 
appliances  by  which  the  four  classes  of  possibilities  of 
their  own  nature  have  been  most  effectively  developed, 
and  to  impart  to  them  at  the  same  time  the  power, 
habits,  tastes  and  tact  necessary  rightly  to  direct,  in  the 
use  of  these  processes,  conditions  and  appliances,  in  the 
education  of  others.  The  following  brief  statement  of 
each  of  these  lines  of  work  will  serve  to  indicate  the 
course  that  should  be  pursued. 

PHYSICAL   TRAINING. 

80.  The  body  is  capable  of  a  development  and  train- 
ing which  zvill  give  to  it  special  and  effective  pozver  in 
school  work,  especially  with  primary  and  intermediate 
pupils. 

(a).  The  physical  nature  of  pupils  of  these  grades 
is  pecuharly  active,  and  this  dominates  all  of  their 
actions.     It  is  very  important  at  this  stage  rightly  to  di- 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING.  159 


rect  this  activity  so  as  to  assure  a  healthy  growth  of  the 
body.  All  successful  efforts,  therefore,  for  the  intellec- 
tual, moral  and  spiritual  development  of  such  pupils 
must  regard  this  fact,  and  be  carried  on  in  harmony 
with  it.  Hence  teachers,  whose  physical  training  has 
not  fitted  them  to  sympathize  with,  participate  in,  and 
direct  the  physical  activities  of  their  pupils,  must  neces- 
sarily fail  of  proper  success  in  the  intellectual,  moral  and 
spiritual  phases  of  their  work.  Without  the  right  kind 
of  physical  training  teachers  cannot,  by  personal  con- 
tact or  otherwise,  supply  the  conditions  and  stimuli 
that  are  necessary  to  convert  the  natural  physical  ac- 
tivity of  their  pupils  into  an  invaluable  help  in  other 
lines  of  development. 

{b).  The  special  physical  training  which  should  be 
given  to  teachers  must  have  reference,  first,  to  the 
symmetrical  development  of  their  own  bodies,  and  sec- 
ond, to  the  multifarious  school  work  in  which  the  body 
performs  so  important  a  part.  Teachers  must  be  ex- 
amples in  all  things  to  their  pupils.  They  must  never 
forget  the  accuracy  with  which  even  young  pupils 
note,  read  and  imitate  the  elements  of  weakness  and 
power  in  their  personal  appearance  and  conduct. 
Where  teachers  are  careless  and  indifferent  in  these 
matters,  they  necessarily  foster,  strongly,  habits  of  the 
same  kind  in  their  pupils.  The  pupils  will  not  usually 
rise  higher  in  these  respects  than  the  example  placed 
before  them.  This  remark  is  true  of  the  entire  range 
of  school  work  and  school  requirements.  Hence 
teachers,  in  order  to  do  the  highest  kind  of  work  in  the 


l6o  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

school-room,  must  be  able  to  say  to  their  pupils  in 
every  case  ^^  come,''  and  not  "go."  They  must  appear 
at  all  times  before  their  classes  as  models  of  propriety 
and  physical  activity,  rightly  directed,  and  adapted  to 
every  line  of  work  in  which  they  engage. 

8 1.  The  physical  training  given  to  teachers,  in  order 
to  he  of  practical  value,  must  be  continued  until  the 
bodily  changes  produced  become  habits  or  a  second 
nature,  and  sho2ild  cover  substantially  the  following 
ground  : 

{a).  The  systematic  development  of  the  body  as  a 
necessary  condition  of  true  mental  development  and 
also  of  effective  physical  work.  This  will  require  vig- 
orous outdoor  sports  and  exercises,  which  must  be 
entirely  free  from  the  efforts  and  constraints  of  games 
conducted  for  professional  ends. 

[b).  The  development  of  such  physical  activity  as 
will  give  sprightliness  and  gracefulness  to  every  move- 
ment of  the  body.  For  this  purpose  systematic  train- 
ing must  be  given  in  calisthenics  and  gymnastics. 

{c).  The  practical  training  of  the  body,  which  comes 
from  the  constant  performance  of  school  work  in  a 
systematic,  spirited  and  healthful  manner,  should  receive 
special  attention.  This  is  an  important  phase  of  phys- 
ical training.  As  already  pointed  out,  the  action  and 
personal  appearance  of  teachers  in  performing  their 
work  have  a  powerful  influence  in  shaping  the  conduct 
and  character  of  their  pupils.  An  awkward  and  un- 
decided manner,  for  example,  not  unfrequently  destroys. 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING.  l6l 

almost  entirely,  the  teacher's  power  to  control  pupils. 
In  like  manner,  an  awkward  way  of  working  at  the 
blackboard  may  largely  destroy  the  desired  effect,  upon 
a  class,  of  a  very  clear  explanation.  Hence  the  impor- 
tance of  such  physical  training  as  will  give  naturalness, 
freedom  and  decision  to  every  motion  and  position  of 
the  body  in  the  act  of  performing  any  kind  of  school 
work. 

{d).  In  the  physical  training  course  particular  em- 
phasis must  be  placed  upon  the  development  of  the 
organs  which  have  special  value  in  educational  work. 
The  sensory  organs  stand  first  in  this  respect.  The 
object  to  be  attained  in  this  case  is  to  make  each  sense 
a  reliable  instrument  for  collecting  the  necessary  data 
for  mental  work,  and  for  directing  the  effective  use  of 
the  other  organs  of  the  body.  The  training  here 
should  be  systematic  and  should  include  the  careful 
exercise  of  the  senses  on  a  wide  range  of  natural  and 
artificial  products,  such  as  the  pupils  will  come  in  con- 
tact with  in  practical  life. 

The  training  of  the  hand  comes  second  in  order.  A 
rightly  trained  hand  is  one  of  the  most  important 
qualifications  for  school  work  a  teacher  can  possess. 
Without  this,  there  are  several  lines  of  school  work 
which  must  of  necessity  be  very  imperfectly  performed. 
This  training  should  include  penmanship,  free-hand 
drawing,  the  handling  and  practical  application  of  the 
various  kinds  of  tools  used  in  the  mechanic  arts,  and 
the  handling  and  practical  use  of  such  apparatus  as  arc 
necessary  in  giving  instruction  in  the  elements  of  the 


1 62  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

natural  sciences.  The  instruction  and  practice  in  this 
case  should  be  given  in  the  lines  of  work  that  possess 
the  greatest  educational  value,  and  that  will,  while 
training  the  hand,  provide  the  right  material  and  con- 
ditions for  the  training  of  the  senses. 

The  next  in  order  is  the  training  of  the  vocal  organs. 
This  should  partake  of  the  nature  of  vocal  gymnastics, 
and  should  only  form  the  basis  of  voice  culture  proper. 
Special  stress  should  be  placed  upon  such  exercises  as 
will  impart  power  to  teachers  in  the  use  of  their  voice 
in  teaching,  and  also  in  the  matter  of  controUing  pupils. 
The  misuse  of  the  voice  is,  with  many  teachers,  a  source 
of  great  weakness  and  the  cause  of  much  of  the  trouble 
they  have  in  managing  their  pupils. 

ACADEMIC   OR   INTELLECTUAL  TRAINING. 

82.  The  academic  training  for  prijnary  and  gram- 
mar school  teachers  should  cover  in  a  thorough  man- 
ner all  the  subjects  of  a  good  English  education. 

{a.)  This  part  of  the  work,  so  far  as  it  relates  simply 
to  mental  discipline  and  the  acquisition  of  knowledge, 
may  be  done  in  good  high  schools  and  academies.  In 
such  schools,  however,  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  is 
regarded  as  of  paramount  importance,  and  hence  they 
fail  to  place  sufficient  stress  upon  the  development  of 
mental  power,  and  the  formation  of  right  habits  and 
tastes  for  independent  intellectual  work.  They  fail  also, 
almost  entirely,  in  causing  the  students,  while  pursuing 
academic  studies,  to  gain  a  clear  insight  into  the  pro- 


ACADEMIC  OR  INTELLECTUAL  TRAINING.       1 63 

cesses  and  methods  by  which  their  teachers  have  en- 
abled them  to  gain  the  mastery  of  each  study  pursued. 
{h).  The  defects  just  pointed  out,  in  the  way  in 
which  academic  work  is  usually  done,  in  the  regular 
classes  in  high  schools  and  academies,  make  it  neces- 
sary, in  order  to  give  students  preparing  to  teach  the 
right  kind  of  instruction,  to  organize  and  conduct  classes 
in  almost  every  academic  subject  exclusively  for  them- 
selves. Where  this  is  not  done,  high  schools  and  acade- 
mies largely  fail  in  giving  the  preparation  necessary  to 
pursue  successfully  the  professional  part  of  the  training 
course.  Hence  it  usually  becomes  necessary  to  give  to 
students  a  thorough  review,  on  the  more  important  or 
representative  subjects,  before  allowing  them  to  enter 
upon  professional  work.  In  this  review  special  promi- 
nence must  be  given  to  the  features  of  work  referred  to 
in  («),  which  failed  to  receive  proper  attention  in  the 
first  study  of  the  subjects. 

83.  Students  preparing  to  teach  must  be  required, 
while  pursuing  for  the  first  time,  or  reviewing  their 
academic  studies,  to  give  special  attention  to  the  fol- 
lowing zvork,  and  report  successfully  upon  the  same, 
in  writing,  as  a  condition  to  entering  upon  the  pro- 
fessional work. 

{ci).  The  order  in  which  each  topic,  in  each  subject 
studied,  was  discussed  in  class  by  the  teacher. 

{b).  The  illustrations  and  devices  used  by  the  teacher 
to  enlist  the  attention  of  the  students  and  make  plain 
difficult  points  in  the  topics  discussed. 


1 64  PRINCIPLES   OF  EDUCATION. 


(c).  The  methods  of  drill  pursued  in  fixing  perma- 
nently in  the  memory  the  truths  presented  in  class. 

{d).  The  mental  processes  by  which  the  student  him- 
self reached,  by  the  aid  of  teachers,  books,  and  other 
surroundings,  the  solution  of  every  difificulty  encount- 
ered in  the  subjects  studied. 

{e).  The  method  pursued  and  tact  shown  by  each 
teacher  in  the  management  or  government  of  classes, 
and  also  the  course  pursued  in  the  general  management 
of  the  whole  school. 

(/).  The  keeping  of  careful  memoranda  on  the  fore- 
going points  in  form  to  be  submited  for  the  inspection  of 
the  teacher  of  each  class  when  each  subject  is  completed. 
These  memoranda,  and  the  examinations  passed  upon 
each  subject,  should  form  the  basis  from  which  to  judge 
whether  students  are  prepared  or  not  to  enter  upon  the 
professional  training. 

MORAL   AND    SPIRITUAL   TRAINING. 

84.  The  possession  of  the  right  kind  of  moral  and 
spiritual  training  is  the  crowning  qualification  of  the 
true  teacher. 

{a).  This  training  has  specially  to  do  with  the  inner 
life,  which  is  the  real  source  of  all  outward  conduct. 
Here  the  requirement  is  :  "  Keep  thy  heart  with  all  dili- 
gence, for  out  of  it  are  the  issues  of  life."  Until  teach- 
ers can  do  this  for  themselves,  with  some  degree  of  suc- 
cess, they  are  not  properly  prepared  to  become  the 
keepers   and   trainers   of   the  hearts   of    others.      The 


MORAL  A.VD  SPTRn^UAL    TRALVl.VG.  165 

acquisition  of  this  power  is,  therefore,  imperative  upon 
all  teachers.  Only  by  the  possession  of  this  can  they 
accomplish  the  highest  good  of  their  pupils. 

{b).  A  certain  minimum  of  moral  training  is  possible 
upon  the  basis  of  an  unregencrate  nature.  Only  the 
regenerate  heart,  however,  is  capable  of  the  training 
which  develops  the  highest  order  of  manhood  or 
womanhood,  and  which  prepares,  at  the  same  time,  for 
the  highest  order  of  service  as  an  exemplar,  instructor 
and  leader  of  others.  Without  the  qualification  which 
this  training  gives,  teachers  must  fail  to  come  into  ef- 
fective touch,  in  the  best  sense,  with  the  moral  and 
spiritual  possibilities  of  their  pupils.  They  must,  there- 
fore, fail  in  a  large  measure  in  doing  the  most  impor- 
tant work  of  their  calling. 

85.  Successful  moral  and  spiritual  training  are  alike 
the  result  of  a  xvise  union  of  instruction  and  practice. 

{a).  The  key  to  success  in  this  department  of  train- 
ing is  found  in  following  Christ's  statement,  John  vii. 
17:  "If  man  will  do  His  will,  he  shall  know  of  the 
doctrine."  The  value  of  moral  and  religious  knowl- 
edge simply,  in  the  formation  of  a  true  character,  is 
greatly  overestimated.  The  possession  of  such  knowl- 
edge in  a  formal  way  is  compatible  with  a  life  of  wick- 
edness and  immorality.  "  Devils  also  believe  and  trem- 
ble." James  ii.  19.  Devils  also  know,  but  they  remain 
devils  still.  Hence,  only  that  kind  of  moral  and  re- 
ligious knowledge  which  is  evolved  out  of  a  life,  or  which 
after    being  acquired  from    without  is  embodied   in   a 


1 66  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

life,  can  help  to  produce  a  true  and  reliable  character. 
Hence,  also,  effective  moral  and  spiritual  instruction 
can  be  imparted  only  in  the  act  of  practising  what  is 
taught. 

{b).  The  healthy  development  of  the  moral  and  spir- 
itual natures  is  as  really  the  product  ot  food  and  exer- 
cise as  the  healthy  development  of  the  body.  The  food 
in  the  former  case  consists  of  moral  and  spiritual  truth, 
in  the  latter  of  material  substances.  The  exercise  in 
the  former  case  consists  of  active  service  for  the  good 
of  our  fellow-creatures  and  for  the  glory  of  God,  in 
the  latter  of  rightly  directed  physical  exercise  and  em- 
ployments. In  both  cases,  to  secure  the  best  results, 
the  food  and  exercise  must  accompany  each  other,  and 
must  be  united  in  right  proportions  and  be  administered 
at  the  right  time  and  under  proper  conditions.  The 
Scripture  injunction  on  this  subject  is  :  "  Grow  in  grace 
and  in  the  knowledge  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus 
Christ."  2  Peter  iii.  i8.  The  growth  in  grace  or  vir- 
tues goes  hand  in  hand  with  the  growth  in  knowledge. 
Both  are  inseparably  joined  together.  As  illustrating 
this  necessary  union  between  knowledge  and  practice  in 
the  development  of  a  strong  moral  and  spiritual  char- 
acter, Christ  represents  the  man  who  heareth  and  doeth 
as  the  wise  man  who  has  acquired  the  power  to  withstand 
the  severest  storms  of  this  life.  "Every  one,  therefore, 
which  heareth  these  words  of  mine,  and  doeth  them, 
shall  be  likened  unto  a  wise  man,  which  built  his  house 
upon  the  rock  ;  and  the  rains  descended,  and  the  floods 
came,  and  the  winds  blew  and  beat  upon  that  house  j 


MORAL  AND  SPIRITUAL    TRAINING.  167 

and   it  fell  not:    for   it   was  founded  upon  the  rock." 
Matt.  vii.  24,  25. 

86.  The  course  of  moral  and  spiritual  training  should 
provide  such  instruction  and  actual  practice  as  will 
fix  permanently  in  the  mind  and  heart  Bible  principles 
of  right  living. 

{a).  This  must  include  such  exercises  as  will  develop 
a  vigorous  and  sensitive  conscience — a  conscience  that 
will  command  attention  and  enforce  obedience  to  its 
decisions  under  the  most  trying  circumstances.  Such 
results  can  be  secured  only  by  persistent  practice  in 
making  careful  and  critical  decisions  upon  questions  of 
right  and  wrong.  The  students  under  training  must 
therefore  be  required  to  examine  and  pronounce  judg- 
ment as  to  the  right  and  wrong  involved,  in  the  most 
trivial  as  well  as  the  most  important  matters  with 
which  as  teachers  they  may  have  to  do.  Here  it  must 
be  noted  that  a  mistake  is  very  commonly  made  in  re- 
gard to  the  province  of  the  conscience.  It  is,  by  many, 
as  has  already  been  pointed  out,  practically  restricted 
in  its  operations  to  what  is  known  as  the  spiritual  side 
of  our  nature.  Conscience,  with  such,  has  nothing  to 
do  with  ordinary  affairs  of  life  and  the  exercise  of  the 
functions  of  the  body.  This  is  a  great  mistake,  and 
leads  to  fatal  results,  especially  in  the  training  of  in- 
fants and  children.  The  decisions  of  the  conscience 
are  co-extensive  with  our  existence  and  the  work  of 
our  entire  being.  They  alone  settle  authoritatively 
when,  where,  how,   and  for  what  purpose  each   func- 


1 68  rRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

tion  of  the  body  and  each  power  of  the  mind  ought  to 
be  exercised. 

{li).  In  harmony  with  what  has  just  been  stated,  the 
training  of  the  conscience  must  commence  with  the 
infant  and  be  continued  up  to  mature  hfe.  In  the  case 
of  the  infant,  the  consciousness  of  the  ought  and  of  the 
ought  not  accompanies  every  experience  he  passes 
through  in  which  he  knows  that  one  of  two  courses 
can  be  pursued,  one  of  which  will  avoid  pain  and 
suffering.  As  he  matures  in  mind  and  body,  the  range 
of  this  consciousness  extends  until  it  includes  every 
activity  of  his  being.  If  rightly  guided  in  the  educa- 
tional processes  that  take  place  during  the  periods  of 
infancy,  childhood  and  youth,  the  habit  will  be  firmly 
fixed  of  never  acting  until  the  conscience  has  given 
its  decision  as  to  the  right  or  wrong  involved  in  the 
course  of  action  proposed.  Hence  the  importance  upon 
the  part  of  teachers  under  training  of  making  a  special 
practical  study  of  this  subject.  They  should  be  re- 
quired to  discover  by  careful  observation  the  peculiar 
moral  tendency  of  each  pupil  in  their  classes,  and  to 
record  the  same  in  good  form  for  examination  by  their 
teachers.  They  should  also  be  required  to  accompany  ^ 
this  record  by  carefully  prepared  suggestions  on  the 
appliances  that  should  be  used,  in  special  cases,  to 
counteract  evil  tendencies  and  strengthen  what  is  good, 
and  thus  promote,  in  the  best  way,  courses  of  conduct 
that  will  crystallize  into  a  strong  moral  character. 
The  reports  made  in  this  way  by  the  student  teachers 
should  form    the  basis  of  discussion   in    class    on   the 


MORAL  AND   SPIRITUAL    TRAINING.  1 69 

appliances    and     methods     of     moral     and     spiritual 
training. 

^y.  A  proper  supply  of  the  right  kind  of  moral  and 
spiritual  food  afid  of  moral  and  spiritual  exercises 
must  be  provided  in  order  to  secure  the  successful  de- 
velopment of  a  true  character. 

(a.)  It  has  already  been  stated  that  moral  and  spirit- 
ual truth  constitute  the  aliment  for  moral  and  spiritual 
development.  While  this  is  correct,  it  is  not  true  that 
such  truth  can  be  used  indiscriminately  to  effect  this 
end.  A  careful  selection  must  be  made,  corresponding 
with  the  stage  of  development  reached.  The  milk  is 
for  babes  and  the  strong  meat  for  those  of  mature  minds. 
In  nothing,  perhaps,  do  teachers  more  signally  fail  than 
in  adapting  the  truths  supplied  their  pupils  to  their 
actual  condition  and  stage  of  progress.  This  remark 
applies  to  all  kinds  of  truth,  but  especially  to  moral  and 
spiritual  truth.  Hence  the  great  necessity  for  the 
careful  training  of  teachers  in  this  department  of  their 
work. 

(^.)  The  Bible  is  the  foundation  of  all  moral  and 
spiritual  teaching.  Its  simple  and  yet  comprehensive 
objective  representations  cover  the  entire  possible  range 
of  human  experiences.  Every  relation  of  man  to  man, 
of  man  to  God,  of  man  to  the  present  condition  of 
things,  and  of  man  to  the  future  state,  is  objectively  and 
exhaustively  presented  in  the  Bible.  The  storehouse, 
therefore,  from  which  to  draw  moral  and  spiritual  food 
is  complete  and    inexhaustible.      It   requires,  however, 


I/O  PRINCIPLES   OF  EDUCATION. 

trained  minds  and  trained  hearts,  possessed  of  a  correct 
and  sympathetic  knowledge  of  the  real  condition  of  the 
souls  to  be  fed,  to  draw  from  this  storehouse  the  very 
food  that  will  meet  the  wants  of  these  souls  in  the  most 
effective  manner.  The  training  for  this  work  requires 
the  most  careful  and  painstaking  study  of  the  Bible. 
In  this  study  the  Bible  must  not  be  treated  as  a  mere 
literary  or  historical  production,  but  as  a  perfect  record 
of  objective  cases,  which  reveal  clearly  and  infallibly 
the  operative  forces  and  consequences  of  all  human 
actions,  God's  treatment  of  these  actions,  and  His 
method  of  restoring  lost  human  beings  to  filial  affection 
and  to  Fatherly  favor.  This  study  should  be  conducted 
indentively,  the  same  as  other  subjects. 


PROFESSIONAL   TRAINING. 

Under  this  head  will  be  outlined  the  course  that 
should  be  pursued  in  giving  to  teachers  the  special 
professional  training  necessary  to  fit  them  for  effective 
service  in  every  department  of  their  work.  In  this 
outline  it  is  assumed  that  the  professional  course  is 
to  follow  such  physical,  academic  and  moral  training 
as  has  already  been  outlined  in  Arts,  jy  to  84  in- 
clusive. It  is  assumed  also  that  the  object  of  this 
course  is  to  fit  teachers  thoroughly  rightly  to  con- 
dition their  pupils  (Arts.  60  and  66)  to  acquire  in  the 
best  and  most  direct  manner  physical  and  mental 
power,  right  habits,  pure  and  elevated  tastes,  system- 


PROFESSIONAL    TRAINING.  I/l 

atized  knowledge  and  a  reliable  and  symmetrical 
character  (Art.  7).  The  preparation  for  such  a 
responsible  and  far-reaching  work  as  this  should  be 
broad  and  thorough,  and  should  be  made  under  such 
conditions  as  will  secure  the  very  best  results.  These 
conditions  are  substantially  as  follows  : 

88.  A  thorough  course  of  reading  and  instruction 
in  the  elements  of  Mental  Physiology  : 

{a).  This  line  of  study  can  be  undertaken  with  profit 
only  after  the  elements  of  Physiology  and  Hygiene 
have  been  thoroughly  mastered.  In  the  instruction 
given  under  this  head  man  must  be  regarded  as  an 
organized  unit  composed  of  body  and  mind  (Art.  4). 
The  course  should  cover  a  very  careful  consideration 
of  the  following  points: 

{b).  The  relation  between  the  nervous  system  and 
physical  and  mental  activity,  including  the  special 
study  of  the  functions  of  the  motor  and  sensory 
nerves,  the  classification  of  these  functions  and  their 
products,  and  the  formulating  of  the  laws  which  relate 
each  class  of  nerves  to  its  products. 

{c).  The  special  senses,  first,  considered  simply  as  phys- 
ical organs,  and  second,  as  the  instruments  by  which  the 
mind  takes  cognisance  of  the  phenomena  of  the  ex- 
ternal world.  This  should  include  a  careful  examina- 
tion into  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  functions  and 
of  the  products  of  each  sense.  It  should  also  include 
an  equally  careful  examination  into  the  nature  and 
extent    of    the    physical    and    mental    conditions    and 


1/2  PRINCIPLES   OF  EDUCATION. 

exercises  that  must  be  supplied  in  order  rightly  to 
train  or  educate  each  sense. 

(d).  The  special  kinds  of  nerve  activity  that  affect 
directly  or  indirectly  the  action  of  the  mind  in  in- 
quiring sensations  and  sense  perceptions,  and  also  in 
the  exercise  of  the  power  of  ideation,  of  memory, 
of  attention  and  of.  imagination.  This  should  also 
include  the  careful  study  of  the  effects  of  nerve 
activity  upon  the  passions,  emotions  and  the  action 
of  the  will. 

{c).  The  sports,  amusements  and  other  physical 
exercises  which  should  be  considered  as  necessary 
conditions  of  a  healthy  and  vigorous  nerve  and  men- 
tal activity.  This  should  include  a  careful  examina- 
tion of  the  principles  which  should  determine  the 
nature  and  extent  of  such  exercise  in  connection  with 
school  work. 

89.  A  thorough  course  of  reading  and  instruetion 
in  the  elements  of  Psychology,  following  the  instruction 
in  Mental  Physiology  : 

{a).  This  course  should  be  conducted  with  special 
reference  to  the  work  of  teachers.  Much  that  is  of 
value  and  of  intense  interest  to  the  investigator  of 
psychological  phenomen:i  should  be  entirely  omitted. 
The  instructions  given  should  be  based  largely  upon 
the  faccs  and  principles  discussed  in  Mental  Physio- 
logy, and  should  follow  the  order  of  self-development, 
Art.  56  {d),  rather  than  the  logical  order  of  the  sub- 
ject.    The  following   points  should    be  very  carefully 


PROFESSIONAL    TRAINING.  1/3 


investigated   and    the    results  reached  formulated  and 
made  a  permanent  possession. 

{b).  The  natural  order  of  primary  mental  activities, 
namely  sensation,  sense  perception  and  ideation  ;  the 
mental  process  involved  in  each  of  these  activities; 
and  the  conditions  by  which  this  process  can  in  each 
case  be  intensified  and  gradually  enlarged  in  the  scope 
of  its  operations. 

{c).  The  mental  process  involved  in  forming  con- 
cepts and  judgments,  in  acts  of  imagination,  in  con- 
ducting courses  of  reasoning,  and  the  progressive 
nature  of  the  conditions  and  exercises  by  which  the 
process  peculiar  to  each  of  these  forms  of  mental 
activity  can  be  developed  and  strengthened. 

{d).  The  laws  of  mental  and  physical  association  by 
which  past  objects  of  consciousness  are  recalled  into 
present  consciousness,  by  which,  also,  induced  states, 
such  as  habits  and  tastes,  are  stimulated  and  called 
into  present  action ;  and  the  manner  of  conducting 
every  department  of  school  work  so  as  to  form  strong 
associations  which  will,  whenever  required,  readily 
recall  into  present  service  past  objects  of  conscious- 
ness and  past  induced  states  of  body  and  mind. 

if).  The  mental  process  called  studying ;  the  mental 
activiiiy  or  state  called  attention ;  and  the  nature  of 
the  exercises  by  which  each  of  these  important  forms 
of  mental  activity  can  best  be  strengthened  and 
properly  utilized  in  performing  mental  work, 

(/).  The  conscience,  the  emotions  and  the  will ;  the 
relations  they  sustain  to  each  other;    the  place    that 


174  PRINCIPLES   OF  EDUCATION. 

each  should  be  given  in  the  educational  process,  and 
the  exercises  and  conditions  by  which  each  can  be 
developed  and  made  effective  in  the  formation  of  a 
true  character. 

90.  Based  upon  Mental  Physiology  and  Psychology, 
a  course  of  reading  and  instriiction  in  school  organisa- 
tion and  school  manage inent  covering  substantially  the 
following  ground  : 

(a).  The  best  methods  of  conducting  examinations, 
of  grading,   of  classifying  and  of  making  promotions. 

{b).  The  general  arrangement  of  the  school,  the 
seating,  the  use  of  classrooms,  division  of  time,  inter- 
missions and  change  of  classes. 

{c).  Physical  exercises,  their  nature  and  extent,  the 
management  of  play  grounds  and  of  all  out-door  sports. 

{d).  Management,  general  principles,  methods  of 
dealing  with  special  cases,  legitimate  rewards  and 
punishments,  suspensions  and  exclusions  when  justi- 
fiable. 

{e).  The  relation  of  teachers  to  parents  or  guardians, 
the  rights  and  obligations  of  both  parties,  how  far 
parents  should  be  consulted  in  special  cases  of  dis- 
cipline, the  limits  of  the  control  of  teachers  over  their 
pupils. 

(/).  Reccds,  reports,  standings,  nature  and  extent 
of  the  incentives  that  should  be  used;  private  and 
public  exercises,  their  nature  and  extent ,  literary 
societies,  their  place,  their  management  and  their 
influence. 


PROFESSIONAL    TRAINING.  1/5 

(,4'-).  Duties  of  Principals,  their  authority  and  respon- 
sibility; the  assignment  of  work  to  their  teachers; 
special  and  general  duties  of  subordinate  teachers. 

91.  Instruction  in  methods,  or  the  applieation  of  right 
principles  of  teaching,  based  upon  clearly  defined  laws 
of  physical  and  mental  development : 

{(.i).  The  instruction  under  this  head  should  first 
be  given  in  the  form  of  practical  discussions  upon 
right  principles  of  teaching  and  their  application  to 
special  subjects ;  then  in  connection  with  actual  teach- 
ing in  the  form  of  practical  hints  and  suggestions,  and 
of  friendly  yet  rigorous  criticism. 

(/;).  Principles  of  teaching  have  already  been  out- 
lined in  Arts.  59  to  72,  inclusive.  In  the  discussion  of 
the  application  of  these  principles  it  will  not  be  neces- 
sary to  consider  all  the  subjects  of  an  extensive  curric- 
ulum. A  careful  selection  can  be  made  that  will 
meet  fully  all  requirements.  Two  things  should,  how- 
ever, always  govern  in  making  this  selection  :  first,  the 
subjects  selected  should  cover  every  stage  of  the  men- 
tal development  of  pupils  ;  second,  the  nature  of  the 
subjects  should  be  such  as  will  illustrate  fully  the  change 
of  method  necessary  in  the  pursuit  of  different  lines 
of  study  or  investigation. 

(<•).  The  practice-teaching  should  be  made  to  con- 
form as  far  as  possible  to  the  conditions  with  which 
teachers  will  have  to  do  when  their  training  course  is 
completed.  Pupil-teachers  should  be  put  in  full  charge 
of  each   class   they   instruct.      They    sIkhiIcI    be    made 


1/6  PRINCIPLES   OF  EDUCATION. 

responsible  for  the  management  and  teaching  of  their 
classes  in  the  same  sense  as  they  will  be  when  con- 
ducting a  school  of  their  own.  They  should  have 
charge  of  each  class  a  sufficient  time  to  test  properly 
their  ability  in  managing  and  in  carrying  to  a  suc- 
cessful finish  a  definite  portion  of  the  subject  taught. 
The  time  necessary  for  such  a  result  should  vary  from 
five  to  ten  weeks,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  sub- 
jects. 

{ii\  The  practice-teaching  of  pupils  should  be  un- 
der the  most  careful  supervision  of  experienced  teach- 
ers. This  supervision  should,  however,  be  conducted 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  avoid  a  domineering  spirit, 
which,  to  a  great  extent,  reduces  pupil-teachers  to 
machines  in  performing  their  work.  The  object  of  the 
supervision  should  always  be  to  encourage  in  every  way 
possible  originality  and  self-dependence  in  the  pupil- 
teachers.  The  course  of  training  should  not  destroy 
personality.  It  should  rather  correct  defects,  and  in 
this  way  strengthen  it.  The  following  suggestions  in- 
dicate what  may  be  regarded  as  the  proper  course 
to  be  pursued  by  supervising  or  critic  teachers  in  the 
discharge  of  their  duties  : 

(i).  They  should  make  it  their  chief  aim  to  cor- 
rect effectually  root-defects,  which,  when  corrected, 
will  remedy  a  large  number  of  minor  defects.  It 
is  a  great  mistake  to  indulge  in  criticising  in  de- 
tail these  minor  defects.  They  will,  v/ithout  fail,  dis- 
appear when  the  root  that  supports  them  is  cut  off. 

(2).   "  One  thing  at  a  time  "  is  a  necessary  maxim  in 


PROFESSIONAL    TRAINING.  I// 


the  work  of  critic  teachers,  as  well  as  in  the  work 
of  pupils.  Hence  the  removal  of  one  root-difficulty 
at  a  time  should  be  a  guiding  principle  with  critic 
teachers.  The  opposite  course  is  extremely  injurious. 
To  spread  out  in  a  vivid  manner  before  young  and 
inexperienced  teachers  all  of  their  weaknesses  and 
defects  at  one  time  is  not  only  discouraging  to  them, 
but  takes  from  them  largely  the  power  of  making  the 
corrections  in  their  work  that  are  most  important. 

(3).  Critic  teachers  should,  without  fail,  commend, 
upon  all  suitable  occasions,  points  of  excellency  in 
the  work  of  pupil- teachers.  This  phase  of  work 
is  frequently  partially,  if  not  altogether,  neglected. 
When  pupil  teachers  are  properly  encouraged  by 
having  their  excellencies  pointed  out,  they  will  bear, 
and  indeed  solicit,  the  severe  use  of  the  critical  knife 
in  cutting  off  their  defects. 

(4).  The  method  of  getting  a  correct  estimate  of 
the  defects  and  excellencies  of  the  work  of  pupil- 
teachers  should  be  varied,  according  to  the  peculiar 
nature  and  needs  of  each  teacher.  The  critic  who 
takes  a  seat  in  the  back  or  some  other  part  of  the 
room,  with  note-book  and  pencil  in  hand  to  jot  down 
all  noticeable  defects,  is  ordinarily,  in  the  case  of  young 
and  inexperienced  teachers,  a  very  productive  cause 
of  defects.  Such  an  extreme  course  as  this  should  be 
carefully  avoided.  Critics  should  visit  pupil-teachers 
in  their  work  in  a  way  that  will  encourage  and  inspire 
confidence,  and  hence  allow  them,  when  the  critics 
arc    present,  to  be    self-possessed,    natural,    and    able 


178  PRINCIPLES   OF  EDUCATION. 


to  do  at  least  average  work.  Critics  possessed  of 
proper  qualifications  can  readily  gain  the  confidence 
of  the  pupil- teachers,  and  hence  perform  their  work 
in  this  manner. 

(5).  Hints,  suggestions  and  corrections  which  are 
strictly  personal  should  be  given  to  the  pupil-teachers 
privately,  and  not  in  the  presence  of  any  of  their 
classmates.  There  are,  however,  hints,  suggestions 
amd  corrections  that  should  be  presented  in  class. 
In  this  case  all  personalities  should  be  avoided.  The 
chief  object  of  this  exercise  should  be  to  point  out 
the  application  of  right  principles  of  teaching  in  cor- 
recting defects  which  have  appeared  in  the  practice 
work  of  some  of  the  pupils.  The  greatest  freedom 
should  be  allowed  to  the  pupils,  in  this  discussion, 
in  the  way  of  asking  and  answering  questions,  and 
also  in  making  suggestions  and  pointing  out  excel- 
lencies and  defects  in  certain  methods  of  teaching 
and  managing. 


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Shelley's  Defense  of  Poetry 50 

The  Art  of  Poetry 1.12 

Hunt's  What  is  Poetry? 50 

Newman's  Aristotle's  Poetics 30 

Addison's  Criticisms  ou  Paradise  Lost 1.00 

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Emery :  Notes  on  English  Literature 1.00 

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Sherman:        Analytics  of  Literature 1.25 

Smith:  Synopsis  of  English  and  American  I^iteratu re  .     .     .         .80 

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Thayer:  The  I'.est  Elizabetlian  Plays 1.25 

Thom  :  Shakesp<tare  and  Chaucer  Examinations 1.00 

White  :  I'hilosophy  of  American  Literature ;K) 

Whitney:        Essentials  of  English  Gramnuir 75 

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